Аннотация: International Islamic University (Islamabad, Pakistan) wrote for them, but they remained silent
Abstract
This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the major theological, legal, and mystical traditions within Islam. It examines the origins, founders, and geographical distribution of Sunni, Shi'a, Kharijite, Sufi, and Quranist movements. The study highlights the development of Islamic legal schools (madhhabs), the evolution of Shi'ite sects, the mystical orders (tariqahs) of Sufism, and various reformist and radical currents. Special attention is given to the Islamic understanding of divinity (tawhid), emphasizing the absolute oneness, transcendence, and incomparability of God (Allah). The diversity within Islamic thought is analyzed as a reflection of the religion's dynamic historical and cultural contexts across different regions of the world.
Keywords: Islam, Sunni, Shi'a, Kharijites, Sufism, Quranism, Islamic law (Fiqh), Madhhabs, Tariqahs, Islamic theology, Tawhid, Islamic sects, Sociocultural dynamics, Religious movements, Islamic history.
Sunni Islam
The term Sunnis refers to the "people of the Sunnah and the community consensus."
Sunni Islam originates from disputes over leadership succession following the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE.
Sunnis recognize the legitimacy of the first four caliphs - Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali - and reject the Shi'a concept of divinely appointed imams.
Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (573-634) - the first caliph and a close companion of the Prophet Muhammad.
Umar ibn al-Khattab (584-644) - the second caliph, known for his administrative reforms; in 638, he secured the peaceful surrender of Jerusalem.
Uthman ibn Affan (576-656) - the third caliph, under whose leadership the Qur'an was canonized for the Muslim community.
Ali ibn Abi Talib (600-661) - the fourth caliph, revered by both Sunnis and Shi'a.
Upon the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE, the Muslim community faced the issue of succession.
Sunnis supported the election of Abu Bakr, a trusted companion of the Prophet, believing that leadership should be determined through communal consensus (shura). In contrast, the Shi'a maintained that authority should remain within the Prophet's family, advocating for Ali ibn Abi Talib.
This schism deepened following the assassination of Ali in 661 CE and the tragedy of Karbala in 680 CE, where Ali's son Husayn was martyred - an event that solidified Shi'a identity.
Sunnis are also characterized by their adherence to the Sunnah - the traditions and practices of the Prophet Muhammad, recorded in the Hadith literature, which plays a role analogous to the Gospels in Christianity.
Sunni Madhhab Schools:
Islamic legal and theological thought developed through the formation of madhhabs (schools of jurisprudence) and various theological currents.
Hanafi School (8th century - present) - Founded by Abu Hanifa al-Nu'man ibn Thabit (699-767).
Originating in Kufa (Iraq), the Hanafi school spread throughout the Ottoman Empire, Central Asia, India, and Turkey. The Hanafi madhhab is known for its reliance on rational methods (ra'y) and analogy (qiyas) in legal reasoning. It also permits the use of local customs ('urf) provided they do not contradict Sharia, contributing to its popularity in multiethnic empires.
Maliki School (8th century - present) - Founded by Malik ibn Anas (711-795). Established in Medina (Saudi Arabia), the Maliki school spread across North and West Africa. It emphasizes the practices of the people of Medina ("amal ahl al-Madina) as a source of law and is known for its conservative interpretive approach, stressing fidelity to tradition.
Shafi'i School (9th century - present) - Founded by Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi'i (767-820). Emerging in Egypt, it expanded into Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia), East Africa, and Yemen. The Shafi'i madhhab synthesizes the traditions of the Hanafi and Maliki schools, and grounds its legal judgments in the Qur'an, the Sunnah, and scholarly consensus (ijma').
It also contributed significantly to the development of usul al-fiqh (principles of jurisprudence).
Hanbali School (9th century - present) - Founded by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780-855). Originating in Baghdad (Iraq), the Hanbali school is predominant in Saudi Arabia and Qatar. It is characterized by strict adherence to the Qur'an and the Sunnah, rejecting rational speculation in legal matters.
Modern Sunni Legal Movements:
Wahhabism (18th century - present) - Founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792). A religious-legal movement advocating strict monotheism (tawhid), Wahhabism rejects Sufism, the veneration of saints, and religious innovations (bid'ah). It calls for a return to the "pure" Islam of the early generations (salaf).
Deobandi Movement (19th century - present) - Founded by Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi (1832-1880) and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi (1829-1905). Emphasizing strict adherence to the Qur'an and Sunnah while rejecting Sufi practices and innovations, the Deobandi school is influential in India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.
Barelvi Movement (19th century - present) - Founded by Ahmad Raza Khan Barelvi (1856-1921). Emerging in India, the Barelvi movement emphasizes the veneration of the Prophet Muhammad, traditional practices, and incorporates Sufi elements.
Shi'a Islam
The Shi'a represent a major branch of Islam, distinguished by their belief that leadership after the death of the Prophet Muhammad must remain within the Prophet"s family (Ahl al-Bayt). Unlike Sunnis, who recognize the legitimacy of the first four caliphs, Shi'a Muslims maintain that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the rightful immediate successor to Muhammad, based on divine appointment (nass).
Key Events in Early Shi'a History:
Succession Dispute (632 CE) - Shi'a believe the Prophet Muhammad designated Ali as his successor at the event of Ghadir Khumm.
Martyrdom of Husayn (680 CE) - The death of Husayn ibn Ali at the Battle of Karbala became a defining moment, symbolizing the struggle against injustice and oppression.
Major Shi'a Sects and Movements:
Ja'fari School - Founded by Ja'far al-Sadiq (702-765 CE), the sixth Imam. The Ja'fari legal school emphasizes rational reasoning (ijtihad) alongside Qur'anic and Hadith-based jurisprudence. It forms the basis of Twelver Shi'ism.
Sab'iyya (Seveners) - Followers who recognized Isma'il ibn Ja'far as the rightful successor instead of Musa al-Kadhim, giving rise to the Ismaili movement.
Nizaris ("Assassins") - A branch of Ismailis, historically associated with the Hashshashin order, which played a significant role during the Crusades and in medieval Islamic politics.
Musta'li Ismailis - A division from the Ismailis that developed after succession disputes in the Fatimid Caliphate.
Qarmatians - A radical Ismaili sect known for its revolutionary activities, including the theft of the Black Stone from Mecca (930 CE).
Druze - An offshoot of the Ismaili movement that evolved into a distinct religious community, mainly located in Lebanon, Syria, and Israel.
Twelvers (Ithna'ashariyya) - The largest Shi'a group today, who recognize a lineage of twelve Imams, culminating in the occultation of the twelfth Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi.
Alawites - An offshoot of Shi'a Islam found primarily in Syria, blending Islamic beliefs with syncretic elements.
Alevis - A religious community in Turkey and parts of the Balkans, combining elements of Shi'a Islam, Sufism, and local Anatolian traditions.
Sufism and the Tariqahs
Sufism, the mystical dimension of Islam (comparable in some aspects to Kabbalah in Judaism), developed into numerous schools known as tariqahs - orders of dervishes. Dervishes adhere to knowledge of God through the heart - cardiocentrism - emphasizing the tasawwuf (the "path of the heart").
Tasawwuf involves the cultivation of the soul, a process transmitted from one soul to another. In Sufism, resistance to destiny is considered futile, as everything in the world is predestined by divine decree.
Sufism, or tasawwuf, not only offers a path to spiritual perfection through mystical practices but has also profoundly influenced Islamic culture.
Sufi poets such as Jalal al-Din Rumi (founder of the Mawlawiyya Tariqah) created masterpieces of world literature, while Sufi music (sama) and dance (such as the whirling dervishes) have become symbols of spiritual ecstasy. Moreover, Sufism contributed significantly to the spread of Islam in India, Africa, and Central Asia, due to its tolerance and adaptability to local traditions.
Major Sufi Tariqahs:
1. Rifa'iyya (12th century - present) - Founded by Ahmad al-Rifa'i.
The Rifa'iyya is considered one of the earliest Sufi orders and influenced many subsequent tariqahs, particularly the Bektashiyya. It is active primarily in Egypt and Turkey.
2. Yasawiyya (12th-15th centuries) - Founded by Khawaja Ahmad Yasawi.
The Yasawiyya played a pivotal role in the Islamization of Central Asia.
3. Shadhiliyya (13th century - present) - Founded by Abu'l-Hasan al-Shadhili.
The Shadhiliyya emphasizes inner spiritual development and moderation in asceticism.
4. Suhrawardiyya (12th-15th centuries) - Founded by Shihab al-Din Abu Hafs Umar al-Suhrawardi.
This tariqah emphasizes strict adherence to Sharia and spiritual discipline.
5. Chishtiyya (12th century - present) - Founded by Mu'in al-Din Chishti.
The Chishtiyya order focuses on divine love, the practice of sama (music), and service to humanity. It is mainly active in India and Pakistan.
6. Kubrawiyya (13th-16th centuries) - Founded by Najm al-Din Kubra.
The Kubrawiyya tariqah influenced later orders such as the Naqshbandiyya and Khalwatiyya through shared spiritual chains (silsila).
7. Badawiyya (13th century - present) - Founded by Ahmad al-Badawi.
The Badawiyya order is especially popular in Egypt.
8. Qadiriyya (12th century - present) - Founded by Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani.
The Qadiriyya is notable for its missionary activity, particularly in Africa and Asia, with strict adherence to Sharia and spiritual discipline.
9. Mawlawiyya (13th-20th centuries) - Founded by Jalal al-Din Rumi.
Famous for its whirling dervishes and mystical poetry.
10. Bektashiyya (13th century - present) - Founded by Haji Bektash Veli. The Bektashiyya combines elements of Sufism and Shi'ism, promoting ideals of equality and social justice, predominantly active in Albania and Turkey.
11. Khalwatiyya (14th century - present) - Founded by Umar al-Khalwati. A more secluded order emphasizing khalwa (spiritual retreat) and meditation, primarily active in Turkey.
12. Naqshbandiyya-Khwajagan (14th century - present) - Founded by Baha' al-Din Naqshband. A highly popular order emphasizing "silent dhikr" (remembrance of God) and rigorous spiritual discipline.
Kharijites
The Kharijites (al-Khawarij) were an early Islamic sect that emerged following the Battle of Siffin (657 CE) in Syria. Initially supporters of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Kharijites separated from him after his arbitration agreement with Mu'awiya. Among the prominent figures of early Kharijism was Abdullah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi.
The Kharijites established themselves mainly in Iraq, particularly around Basra.
Philosophically, the Kharijites advocated strict adherence to the Qur'an and the Sunnah, rejecting any compromise in matters of faith. They believed that any righteous Muslim, regardless of lineage, could become a caliph.
In social matters, the Kharijites were zealous and radical, practicing takfir - the excommunication of sinners whom they considered unbelievers (kuffar).
Early Kharijite Movements:
Muhakkimites (7th-8th centuries CE) - The earliest Kharijite group, originating after their break from Ali ibn Abi Talib.
The Muhakkimites rejected the idea of communal consensus (ijma') as the foundation of Islamic governance, asserting that only God (Allah) has the right to judge human affairs.
Azariqa (7th-9th centuries CE) - Founded by Nafi ibn al-Azraq.
The Azariqa represented an extremist Kharijite faction, declaring all non-Kharijites to be unbelievers who could be lawfully killed.
Sufrites (7th-9th centuries CE) - Founded by Ziyad ibn al-Asfar.
The Sufrites maintained a moderate position between the radical Azariqa and the more conciliatory Ibadis.
Najdat (7th-9th centuries CE) - A Kharijite group more moderate than the Azariqa, founded by Najda ibn Amir al-Hanafi.
While still practicing takfir, the Najdat tolerated sinners within the Muslim community unless they openly committed acts of disbelief.
Ibadis (7th century CE - present) - Founded by Abdullah ibn Ibad, a disciple of Jabir ibn Zayd, who in turn studied under Ibn Abbas, a cousin of the Prophet Muhammad.
The Ibadis are considered moderate Kharijites, rejecting the extremism of other factions.
They emphasize peaceful coexistence with other Muslims and view major sinners as having lost their status as "true believers" without necessarily being declared unbelievers.
Yezidis (12th century CE - present) - Founded by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir. The Yezidis combine elements of Islam, Zoroastrianism, and ancient Mesopotamian beliefs. Central to their faith is the veneration of seven angels, led by Malak Tawus ("The Peacock Angel").
Quranism
Quranism (19th-20th centuries - present) is a reformist movement within Islam that recognizes only the Qur'an as the sole source of religious law and doctrine.
Quranists reject the Hadith and the Sunnah, considering them human interpretations that distort the true teachings of Islam.
Key figures in Quranism:
1. Sir Ahmad Khan (1817-1898) - An Indian reformer who criticized the Hadith corpus and advocated a return to the Qur'an as the primary source of Islam.
2. Muhammad Taha (1869-1920) - An Egyptian thinker who rejected the authority of the Sunnah and promoted a rational interpretation of the Qur'an.
3. Rashad Khalifa (1935-1990) - An Egyptian-American biochemist, known for his theory of the "Quran Code" and his radical critique of the Hadith tradition.
Conclusions
1. Islam encompasses a multitude of sects and movements, including Sunni Islam, Shi'a Islam, Sufism, Kharijites, and Quranism.
This diversity reflects the richness and complexity of Islamic thought, transcending simplistic representations of the religion.
Islam is not a monolithic faith but a complex system with a profound historical and cultural legacy, influencing societies and politics worldwide.
2. The fundamental split within Islam between Sunni and Shi'a branches occurred after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE, due to disagreements regarding succession.
Sunnis supported the leadership of Abu Bakr, whereas Shi'a Muslims upheld the claim of Ali ibn Abi Talib, establishing the foundations of the two main branches of Islam.
3. The four Sunni madhhabs (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali) played a crucial role in the development of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) and shaped legal systems in regions such as the Ottoman Empire and modern Saudi Arabia.
4. Among Shi'a sects (Twelvers, Ismailis, Zaydis), differences exist concerning the number and roles of recognized Imams, highlighting the internal diversity of Shi'ism.
5. Various Islamic currents have interacted differently with other religions:
Sufi orders adapted local traditions,
Shi'a Islam incorporated certain elements of Christianity,
Radical groups such as the Wahhabis advocated religious isolationism.
6. Islamic sects exhibit diverse geographical distributions:
Sunni madhhabs dominate regions such as the former Ottoman Empire, Central Asia, and North Africa.
Shi'a sects prevail in Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon.
Sufi tariqahs spread throughout India, Africa, and Central Asia.
Kharijites established themselves in Iraq and Oman.
Quranism has primarily developed in India and Egypt.
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