THE WORLD'S FUTURE
Femtotechnologies and Revolutionary Projects
By Alexander Bolonkin
2011
THE WORLD'S FUTURE
Femtotechnologies and Revolutionary Projects
By Alexander Bolonkin
2011
Contents
Preface
6. AB-Blanket for Cities
8. Magnetic Space Launchers
11. Magnetic Suspended AB-Structures and Motionless Satellites and Space Stations
and Flight (Part 1).
and Flight (Part 2).
and Flight (Part 3).
9. Robot as Person. Personhood. Three Prerequisites or Laws of Robots.
2. Data useful for estimation and calculation of new technologies and projects.
3. References
About the Author
Bolonkin, Alexander Alexandrovich (1933-)
Preface
The book gives the main physical data and technical equations in attachments which will help researchers, engineers, dedicated students and enthusiastic readers make estimations for their own macro-projects. Also, inventors will find an extensive field of inventions and innovations revealed in our book.
Every chapter is independent. Than why some figures are repited.
Part A. New Technology
Chapter 1
Converting of Matter to Nuclear Energy by
AB-Generator* and Photon Rocket
Abstract
The AB-Generator can produce gigantic energy outputs and should be cheaper than a conventional electric station by a factor of hundreds of times. One also may be used in aerospace as a photon rocket or as a power source for many vehicles.
Many scientists expect the Large Hadron Collider at CERN will produce one MBH every second.
A technology to capture them may follow; than they may be used for the AB-Generator.
* Presented as Paper AIAA-2009-5342 in 45 Joint Propulsion Conferences, 2-5 August, 2009, Denver, CO, USA.
Despite its invisible interior, a black hole can reveal its presence through interaction with other matter. A black hole can be inferred by tracking the movement of a group of stars that orbit a region in space which looks empty. Alternatively, one can see gas falling into a relatively small black hole, from a companion star. This gas spirals inward, heating up to very high temperature and emitting large amounts of radiation that can be detected from earthbound and earth-orbiting telescopes. Such observations have resulted in the general scientific consensus that, barring a breakdown in our understanding of nature, black holes do exist in our universe.
It is impossible to directly observe a black hole. However, it is possible to infer its presence by its gravitational action on the surrounding environment, particularly with microquasars and active galactic nuclei, where material falling into a nearby black hole is significantly heated and emits a large amount of X-ray radiation. This observation method allows astronomers to detect their existence. The only objects that agree with these observations and are consistent within the framework of general relativity are black holes.
A black hole has only three independent physical properties: mass, charge and angular momentum.
In astronomy black holes are classed as:
According to some theories of quantum gravity they may also be produced in the highly energetic reaction produced by cosmic rays hitting the atmosphere or even in particle accelerators such as the Large Hadron Collider. The theory of Hawking radiation predicts that such black holes will evaporate in bright flashes of gamma radiation. NASA's Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope satellite (formerly GLAST) launched in 2008 is searching for such flashes.
Fig 1. Artist's conception of a stellar mass black hole. Credit NASA.
Fig.2 (left). Artist's impression of a binary system consisting of a black hole and a main sequence star. The black hole is drawing matter from the main sequence star via an accretion disk around it, and some of this matter forms a gas jet.
Fig.3 (right). Ring around a suspected black hole in galaxy NGC 4261. Date: Nov.1992. Courtesy of Space Telescope Science
For a non rotating (static) black hole, the Schwarzschild radius delimits a spherical event horizon. The Schwarzschild radius of an object is proportional to the mass. Rotating black holes have distorted, nonspherical event horizons. The description of black holes given by general relativity is known to be an approximation, and it is expected that quantum gravity effects become significant near the vicinity of the event horizon. This allows observations of matter in the vicinity of a black hole's event horizon to be used to indirectly study general relativity and proposed extensions to it.
Fig.4. Artist's rendering showing the space-time contours around a black hole. Credit NASA.
At the center of a black hole lies the singularity, where matter is crushed to infinite density, the pull of gravity is infinitely strong, and spacetime has infinite curvature. This means that a black hole's mass becomes entirely compressed into a region with zero volume. This zero-volume, infinitely dense region at the center of a black hole is called a gravitational singularity.
The singularity of a non-rotating black hole has zero length, width, and height; a rotating black hole's is smeared out to form a ring shape lying in the plane of rotation. The ring still has no thickness and hence no volume.
The photon sphere is a spherical boundary of zero thickness such that photons moving along tangents to the sphere will be trapped in a circular orbit. For non-rotating black holes, the photon sphere has a radius 1.5 times the Schwarzschild radius. The orbits are dynamically unstable, hence any small perturbation (such as a particle of infalling matter) will grow over time, either setting it on an outward trajectory escaping the black hole or on an inward spiral eventually crossing the event horizon.
Rotating black holes are surrounded by a region of spacetime in which it is impossible to stand still, called the ergosphere. Objects and radiation (including light) can stay in orbit within the ergosphere without falling to the center.
Once a black hole has formed, it can continue to grow by absorbing additional matter. Any black hole will continually absorb interstellar dust from its direct surroundings and omnipresent cosmic background radiation.
Much larger contributions can be obtained when a black hole merges with other stars or compact objects.
On the other hand if a black hole is very small, the radiation effects are expected to become very strong. Even a black hole that is heavy compared to a human would evaporate in an instant. A black hole the weight of a car (~10-24 m) would only take a nanosecond to evaporate, during which time it would briefly have a luminosity more than 200 times that of the sun. Lighter black holes are expected to evaporate even faster, for example a black hole of mass 1 TeV/c2 would take less than 10-88 seconds to evaporate completely. Of course, for such a small black hole quantum gravitation effects are expected to play an important role and could even - although current developments in quantum gravity do not indicate so - hypothetically make such a small black hole stable.
Theoretically this boundary is expected to lie around the Planck mass (~1019 GeV/c2, mp = 2.1764.10-8 kg), where quantum effects are expected to make the theory of general relativity break down completely. This would put the creation of black holes firmly out of reach of any high energy process occurring on or near the Earth. Certain developments in quantum gravity however suggest that this bound could be much lower. Some braneworld scenarios for example put the Planck mass much lower, maybe even as low as 1 TeV. This would make it possible for micro black holes to be created in the high energy collisions occurring when cosmic rays hit the Earth's atmosphere, or possibly in the new Large Hadron Collider at CERN. These theories are however very speculative, and the creation of black holes in these processes is deemed unlikely by many specialists.
Any primordial black holes of sufficiently low mass will Hawking evaporate to near the Planck mass within the lifetime of the universe. In this process, these small black holes radiate away matter. A rough picture of this is that pairs of virtual particles emerge from the vacuum near the event horizon, with one member of a pair being captured, and the other escaping the vicinity of the black hole. The net result is the black hole loses mass (due to conservation of energy). According to the formulae of black hole thermodynamics, the more the black hole loses mass the hotter it becomes, and the faster it evaporates, until it approaches the Planck mass. At this stage a black hole would have a Hawking temperature of TP / 8? (5.6в1032 K), which means an emitted Hawking particle would have an energy comparable to the mass of the black hole. Thus a thermodynamic description breaks down. Such a mini-black hole would also have an entropy of only 4? nats, approximately the minimum possible value.
At this point then, the object can no longer be described as a classical black hole, and Hawking's calculations also break down. Conjectures for the final fate of the black hole include total evaporation and production of a Planck mass-sized black hole remnant. If intuitions about quantum black holes are correct, then close to the Planck mass the number of possible quantum states of the black hole is expected to become so few and so quantised that its interactions are likely to be quenched out. It is possible that such Planck-mass black holes, no longer able either to absorb energy gravitationally like a classical black hole because of the quantised gaps between their allowed energy levels, nor to emit Hawking particles for the same reason, may in effect be stable objects. They would in effect be WIMPs, weakly interacting massive particles; this could explain dark matter.
Some extensions of present physics posit the existence of extra dimensions of space. In higher-dimensional spacetime, the strength of gravity increases more rapidly with decreasing distance than in three dimensions. With certain special configurations of the extra dimensions, this effect can lower the Planck scale to the TeV range. Examples of such extensions include large extra dimensions, special cases of the Randall-Sundrum model, and String theory configurations. In such scenarios, black hole production could possibly be an important and observable effect at the LHC.
Vacuum energy can also be thought of in terms of virtual particles (also known as vacuum fluctuations) which are created and destroyed out of the vacuum. These particles are always created out of the vacuum in particle-antiparticle pairs, which shortly annihilate each other and disappear. However, these particles and antiparticles may interact with others before disappearing.
The net energy of the Universe remains zero so long as the particle pairs annihilate each other within Planck time.
Virtual particles are also excitations of the underlying fields, but are detectable only as forces.
The creation of these virtual particles near the event horizon of a black hole has been hypothesized by physicist Stephen Hawking to be a mechanism for the eventual "evaporation" of black holes.
Since these particles do not have a permanent existence, they are called virtual particles or vacuum fluctuations of vacuum energy.
An important example of the "presence" of virtual particles in a vacuum is the Casimir effect. Here, the explanation of the effect requires that the total energy of all of the virtual particles in a vacuum can be added together. Thus, although the virtual particles themselves are not directly observable in the laboratory, they do leave an observable effect: their zero-point energy results in forces acting on suitably arranged metal plates or dielectrics.
Thus, virtual particles are often popularly described as coming in pairs, a particle and antiparticle, which can be of any kind.
Fig.5. Hawking radiation. a. Virtual particles at even horizon.
b. Virtual particles out even horizon (in conventional space).
The uncertainty principle in the form
implies that in the vacuum one or more particles with energy ?E above the vacuum may be created for a short time ?t. These virtual particles are included in the definition of the vacuum.
AB-Generator of Nuclear Energy and some Innovations
Note: The photon does NOT have rest mass. Therefore a photon can leave the MBH's neighborhood (if it is located beyond the event horizon). All other particles having a rest mass and speed less than light speed cannot leave the Black Hole. They cannot achieve light speed because their mass at light speed equals infinity and requests infinite energy for its' escape--an impossibility.
Description of AB- Generator. The offered nuclear energy AB- Generator is shown in fig. 6. That includes the Micro Black Hole (MBH) 1 suspended within a spherical radiation reflector and heater 5. The MBH is supported (and controlled) at the center of sphere by a fuel (plasma, proton, electron, matter) gun 7. This AB- Generator also contains the 9 - heat engine (for example, gas, vapor turbine), 10 - electric generator, 11 - coolant (heat transfer agent), an outer electric line 12, internal electric generator (5 as antenna) with customer 14.
The control fuel guns inject the matter into MBH and do not allow bursting of the MBH. This action also supports the MBH in isolation, suspended from dangerous contact with conventional matter. They also control the MBH size and the energy output.
Any matter may be used as the fuel, for example, accelerated plasma, ions, protons, electrons, micro particles, etc. The MBH may be charged and rotated. In this case the MBH may has an additional suspension by control charges located at the ends of fuel guns or (in case of the rotating charged MBH) may have an additional suspension by the control electric magnets located on the ends of fuel guns or at points along the reflector-heater sphere.
Some problems and solutions offered by the author include the following:
2) MBHs may produce gigantic energy and this energy is in the form of dangerous gamma radiation. The author shows how this dangerous gamma radiation Doppler shifts when it moves
against the MBH gravity and converts to safely tapped short radio waves.
3) The MBH of marginal mass has a tendency to explode (through quantum evaporation, very quickly radiating its mass in energy). The AB- Generator automatically injects metered amounts of matter into the MBH and keeps the MGH in a stable state or grows the MBH to a needed size, or decreases that size, or temporarily turns off the AB- Generator (decreases the MBH to a Planck Black Hole).
4) Author shows the radiation flux exposure of AB- Generator (as result of MBH exposure) is not dangerous because the generator cover sphere has a vacuum, and the MBH gravity gradient decreases the radiation energy.
5) The MBH may be supported in a levitated (non-contact) state by generator fuel injectors.
Theory of AB- Generator
General theory of Black Hole.
1. Power produced by BH is
, W, (1)
is reduced Planck constant,
- light speed, G =
6.6743.10-11 m3/kg.s2 is gravitation constant, M - mass of BH, kg.
, K , (2)
where kb = 1.38.10-23 J/k is Boltzmann constant.
. (3)
where c = 3.108 m/s is light speed, ?o is wavelength of photon at even radius, m. h is Planck constant.
, m, (4)
, kg/m3. (5)
6. Maximal charge of BH is
, C, (6)
where e = -1.6.10-19 is charge of electron, C.
- -- Life time of BH is
2.527.10-8 M 3 , s . (7)
, m s-2 . (8)
Developed Theory of AB-Generator
Below are research and the theory developed by author for estimation and computation of facets of the AB- Generator.
9. Loss of energy of Hawking photon in BH gravitational field. It is known the theory of a redshift allows estimating the frequency of photon in central gravitational field when it moves TO the gravity center. In this case the photon increases its frequency because photon is accelerated the gravitational field (wavelength decreases). But in our case the photon moves FROM the gravitational center, the gravitational field brakes it and the photon loses its energy. That means its frequency decreases and the wavelength increases. Our photon gets double energy because the black hole annihilates two photons (photon and anti-photon). That way the equation for photon frequency at distance r > ro from center we can write in form
, (9)
. (10)
. (11)
It is known, the energy and mass of photon is
, (12)
The energy of photon linear depends from its frequency. Reminder: The photon does not have a rest mass.
. (13)
The ro is very small and ? is also very small and ? << ?o.
10. Reflection Hawking radiation back to MBH. For further decreasing the MBH produced energy the part of this energy may be reflected to back in MBH. A conventional mirror may reflect up 0.9 ¤0.99 of radiation (?r = 0.01 ¤ 0.1, ?r is a loss of energy in reflecting), the multi layers mirror can reflect up 0.9999 of the monochromatic light radiation (?r = 10-3¤ 10-5), and AB-mirror from cubic corner cells offered by author in [2], p. 226, fig.12.1g , p. 376 allows to reflect non-monochromatic light radiation with efficiency up ?r = 10-13 strong back to source. In the last case, the loss of reflected energy is ([2] p.377)
(14)
where l is size of cube corner cell, m; m is number of radiation waves in one sell; ? is wavelength, m; a is characteristic of sell material (see [2], fig.A3.3). Minimal value a = 10-2 for glass and a = 10-4 for KCl crystal.
The reflection of radiation to back in MBH is may be important for MBH stabilization, MBH storage and MBH `switch off'.
11. Useful energy of AB- Generator. The useful energy Pu [J] is taken from AB- Generator is
. (15)
, kg. (16)
The fuel consumption is very small. AB-Generator is the single known method in the World now which allows full converting reasonably practical conversion of (any!) matter into energy according the Einsteinian equation E = mc2.
13. Specific pressure on AB-Generator cover sphere p [N/m2] and on the surface of MBH po is
, (17)
the radiation, S is the internal area of cover sphere, m2; S0 is surface of event horizon sphere, m2; po is
specific pressure of Hawking radiation on the event horizon surface. Note, the pressure p on cover
sphere is small (see Project), but pressure po on event horizon surface is very high.
14. Mass particles produced on event surface. On event horizon surface may be also produced the mass particles with speed V < c. Let us take the best case (for leaving the BH) when their speed is radially vertical. They cannot leave the BH because their speed V is less than light speed c. The maximal radius of lifting rm [m] is
, (18)
where g is gravitational acceleration of BH, m/s2; t is time, sec.; ro is BH radius, m; V0 is particle
. (19)
. (20)
, (21)
where V=3/4 ?r3 is volume of the cover sphere.
Your attention is requested toward the next important result following from equations (20)-(21). Many astronomers try to find (detect) the MBH by a MBH exposure radiation. But this radiation is small, may be detected but for a short distance, does not have a specific frequency and has a variably long wavelength. This may be why during more than 30 years nobody has successfully observed MBH events in Earth environment though the theoretical estimation predicts about 100 of MBH events annually. Observers take note!
The maximal suspended force equals
, (22)
where q is fuel consumption, kg; Vf is a fuel speed, m/s. The fuel (plasma) speed 0.01c is
(23)
where w is density of radiation energy, J/m3; E is electric intensity, V/m; H is magnetic intensity, T; ?o = 8.85в10-12 F/m is the coefficient of the electric permeability; ?o = 4?в10-7 N/A2 is the coefficient of the magnetic permeability; ? = ? =1 for vacuum.
Let us take moment when H = 0, then
(24)
where E is electric intensity, V/m; U is voltage of AB-generator, V; b is relative size of antenna, D is diameter of the cover sphere if the cover sphere is used as a full antenna, m; Pe is power of the electric station, W.
As you see about ?/4 of total energy produced by AB-Generator we can receive in the form of electricity and (1-?/4) reflects back to MBH; we may tap heat energy which convert to any form of energy by conventional (heat engine) methods. If we reflect the most part of the heat energy back into the MBH, we can have only electricity and do not have heat flux.
If we will use the super strong and super high temperature material AB-material offered in [3] the conversion coefficient of heat machine may be very high.
(25)
where V is speed of environment matter absorbed by MBH, m/s; g is gravity acceleration of MBH, m/s; r is distance environment matter to MBH center, m; t is time, sec;
is mass loss by MBH, kg;
is mass taken from Earth environment by MBH, kg; ? is density of Earth environment, kg/m3; Mc is critical mass of MBH when one begin uncontrollable grows, kg; t is time, sec.
radiated by MBH to mass
absorbed by MBH from Earth environment, we obtain the critical mass Mc of MBH for any environment:
, (26)
19. General note. We got our equations in assumption ?/?o = r/ro. If ?/?o = (r/ro )0.5 or other relation, the all above equations may be easy modified.
AB-Generator as Photon Rocket
The some possible photon propulsion system used the AB -Generator is shown in Fig.7. In simplest version (a) the cover of AB generator has window 3, the radiation goes out through window and produces the thrust. More complex version (c) has the parabolic reflector, which sends all radiation in one direction and increases the efficiency. If an insert in the AB- Generator covers the lens 6 which will focuses the radiation in a given direction, at the given point the temperature will be a billions degree (see Equation (2)) and AB- Generator may be used as a photon weapon.
The maximal thrust T of the photon engine having AB- Generator may be computed (estimated) by equation:
, N, (26)
For example, the AB-generator, which spends only 1 gram of matter per second, will produce a thrust 3в105 N or 30 tons.
Fig.7. AB- Generator as Photon Rocket and Radiation (Photon) Weapon. (a) AB- Generator as a Simplest Photon Rocket; (b) AB- Generator as focused Radiation (photon, light or laser) weapon; (c) Photon Rocket with Micro-Black Hole of AB-Generator. Notations: 1 - control MBH; 2 - spherical cover of AB-Generator; 3 - window in spherical cover; 4 - radiation of BH; 5 - thrust; 6 - lens in window of cover; 7 - aim; 8 - focused radiation; 9 - parabolic reflector.
Project of AB-Generator
(27)
Remain the main notations in equations (27): Pr = Pu = 1.05в1010 W is the useful energy (?/4 of this energy may be taken as electric energy by cover antenna, the rest is taken as heat); ? = 80 m is wavelength of radiation at cover sphere (that is not dangerous for people);
= 1.17в10-7 kg/s is fuel consumption; ro = 1.48в10-32 m is radius of MBH; pe = 1.28в10-23 N/m2 is explosion pressure of MBH.
Look your attention - the explode pressure is very small. That is less in billions of time then radiation pressure on the cover surface p = 0.111 N/m2. That is no wonder because BH takes back the energy with that spent for acceleration the matter in eating the matter. No dangerous from explosion of MBH.
(28)
where q is specific heat transfer through the cover sphere, S is internal surface of the cover sphere, m2; ? is thickness of the cover sphere wall, m; ?h is heat transfer coefficient for steel; ?T is difference temperature between internal and external walls of the cover sphere; E is electric intensity from radiation on cover sphere surface, V/m; U is maximal electric voltage, V; Pe is electric power, W.
We get the power heat and electric output of a AB-Generator as similar to a very large complex of present day Earth's electric power stations (Pr = 1010 W, ten billion of watts). The AB-Generator is cheaper by a hundred times than a conventional electric station, especially since, we may reflect a heat energy back to the MBH and not built a heat engine with all the problems of conventional power conversion equipment (using only electricity from spherical cover as antenna).
We hope the Large Hadron Collider at CERN can get the initial MBH needed for AB-Generator. The other way to obtain one is to find the Planck MBH (remaining from the time of the Big Bang and former MBH) and grow them to target MBH size.
2. The Micro Black Hole (MBH) is offered for this conversion.
5. Also is offered the control fuel guns and radiation reflector for non-contact suspension (levitation)
of the MBH.
6. For non contact levitation of MBH the author also offers:
a) Controlled charging of MBH and of ends of the fuel guns.
b) Control charging of rotating MBH and control of electric magnets located on the ends of the fuel
guns or out of the reflector-heater sphere.
7. The author researches show the very important fact: A strong gamma radiation produced
by Hawking radiation loses energy after passing through the very strong gravitational MBH
field. The MBH radiation can reach the reflector-heater as the light or short-wave radio radiation.
That is very important for safety of the operating crew of the AB- Generator.
8. The author researches show: The matter particles produced by the MBH cannot escape from MBH
and can not influence the Hawking radiation.
9. The author researches show another very important fact: The MBH explosion (hundreds and
very important for safety of the operating crew of the AB-generator.
10. The author researches show another very important fact: the MBH cannot capture by oneself
the surrounding matter and cannot automatically grow to consume the planet.
11. As the initial MBH can be used the Planck's (quantum) MBH which may be everywhere.
The offered fuel gun may to grow them (or decrease them) to needed size or the initial MBH may
be used the MBH produce Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN. Some scientists assume LHC
will produce one MBH every second (86,400 MBH in day). The cosmic radiation also produces
about 100 MBH every year.
12. The spherical dome of MBH may convert part of the radiation energy to electricity.
We got our equations in assumption ?/?o = r/ro. If ?/?o = (r/ro )0.5 or other relation, the all above equations may be easy modified.
The Hawking article was published 34 years ago (1974)[1]. After this time the hundreds of scientific works based in Hawking work appears. No facts are known which creates doubts in the possibility of Hawking radiation but it is not proven either. The Hawking radiation may not exist. The Large Hadron Collider has the main purpose to create the MBHs and detect the Hawking radiation.
(The reader may find some of related articles at the author's web page http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm; http://arxiv.org , http://www.scribd.com search "Bolonkin"; http://aiaa.org search "Bolonkin"; and in the author's books: "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier, London, 2006, 488 pages; "New Concepts, Ideas, Innovations in Aerospace, Technology and Human Science", NOVA, 2008, 502 pages and "Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology", NOVA 2009, 536 pages).
2. Bolonkin A.A., Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight, Elsevier, 2006, 488 pgs.
Commons license. http://wikipedia.org .
Possible form of photon rocket
Femtotechnology: the Strongest AB-Matter with Fantastic Properties
and their Applications in Aerospace
Abstract
Introduction
Atoms are the smallest (size is about some 10-8 m) neutral particles into which matter can be divided by chemical reactions. An atom consists of a small, heavy nucleus surrounded by a relatively large, light cloud of electrons. Each type of atom corresponds to a specific chemical element. To date, 117 elements have been discovered (atomic numbers 1-116 and 118), and the first 111 have received official names. The well-known periodic table provides an overview. Atoms consist of protons and neutrons within the nucleus. Within these particles, there are smaller particles still which are then made up of even smaller particles still.
Molecules are the smallest particles into which a non-elemental substance can be divided while maintaining the physical properties of the substance. Each type of molecule corresponds to a specific chemical compound. Molecules are a composite of two or more atoms.
Fig.1. (Left) Hydrogen atom contains one proton and one electron.
(Right) Helium atom contains two protons, two neutrons and two electron.
Fig.2. More complex atom which contains many protons, neitrons and electrons.
While bound neutrons in stable nuclei are stable, free neutrons are unstable; they undergo beta decay with a lifetime of just under 15 minutes. Free neutrons are produced in nuclear fission and fusion. Dedicated neutron sources like research reactors and spallation sources produce free neutrons for the use in irradiation and in neutron scattering experiments.
Outside the nucleus, free neutrons are unstable and have a mean lifetime of 885.7Ђ0.8 s, decaying by emission of a negative electron and antineutrino to become a proton:
n0 ? p+ + e-- + ?e .
This decay mode, known as beta decay, can also transform the character of neutrons within unstable nuclei.
Bound inside a nucleus, protons can also transform via inverse beta decay into neutrons. In this case, the transformation occurs by emission of a positron (antielectron) and a neutrino (instead of an antineutrino):
p+ ? n0 + e+ + ?e .
The transformation of a proton to a neutron inside of a nucleus is also possible through electron capture:
p+ + e-- ? n0 + ?e .
Fig.3. Molecule contains some atoms connected by its electrons.
When bound inside of a nucleus, the instability of a single neutron to beta decay is balanced against the instability that would be acquired by the nucleus as a whole if an additional proton were to participate in repulsive interactions with the other protons that are already present in the nucleus. As such, although free neutrons are unstable, bound neutrons are not necessarily so. The same reasoning explains why protons, which are stable in empty space, may transform into neutrons when bound inside of a nucleus.
A thermal neutron is a free neutron that is Boltzmann distributed with kT = 0.024 eV (4.0в10-21 J) at room temperature. This gives characteristic (not average, or median) speed of 2.2 km/s.
Four forces active between particles: strong interaction, weak interacting, charge force (Coulomb force) and gravitation force. The strong interaction is the most strong force in short nuclei distance, the gravitation is very small into atom.
Beta decay and electron capture are types of radioactive decay and are both governed by the weak interaction.
Basic properties of the nuclear force.
The nuclear force is only felt among hadrons. In particle physics, a hadron is a bound state of quarks (particles into nucleous). Hadrons are held together by the strong force, similarly to how atoms are held together by the electromagnetic force. There are two subsets of hadrons: baryons and mesons; the most well known baryons are protons and neutrons.
At short distances, the nuclear force is stronger than the Coulomb force; it can overcome the Coulomb repulsion of protons inside the nucleus. However, the Coulomb force between protons has a much larger range and becomes the only significant force between protons when their separation exceeds about 2.5 fm.
The nuclear force is nearly independent of whether the nucleons are neutrons or protons. This property is called charge independence. It depends on whether the spins of the nucleons are parallel or antiparallel, and has a noncentral or tensor component. This part of the force does not conserve orbital angular momentum, which is a constant of motion under central forces.
Fig.4. Atom and nucleus structure. Proton and neutron contain quarks.
Fig.5. Interaction between fundamental particles.
Elementary particles are particles with no measurable internal structure; that is, they are not composed of other particles. They are the fundamental objects of quantum field theory. Many families and sub-families of elementary particles exist. Elementary particles are classified according to their spin. Fermions have half-integer spin while bosons have integer spin. All the particles of the Standard Model have been observed, with the exception of the Higgs boson.
Subatomic particles include the atomic constituents electrons, protons, and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are composite particles, consisting of quarks. A proton contains two up quarks and one down quark, while a neutron consists of one up quark and two down quarks; the quarks are held together in the nucleus by gluons. There are six different types of quark in all ('up', 'down', 'bottom', 'top', 'strange', and 'charm'), as well as other particles including photons and neutrinos which are produced copiously in the sun. Most of the particles that have been discovered are encountered in cosmic rays interacting with matter and are produced by scattering processes in particle accelerators. There are dozens of known subatomic particles.
Fig.6. Size and scale of nucleus particles.
Degenerate matter is matter which has such very high density that the dominant contribution to its pressure rises from the Pauli exclusion principle. The pressure maintained by a body of degenerate matter is called the degeneracy pressure, and arises because the Pauli principle forbids the constituent particles to occupy identical quantum states. Any attempt to force them close enough together that they are not clearly separated by position must place them in different energy levels. Therefore, reducing the volume requires forcing many of the particles into higher-energy quantum states. This requires additional compression force, and is manifest as a resisting pressure.
where ?p is the uncertainty in the particle's momentum and ?x is the uncertainty in position, then we must say that their momentum is extremely uncertain since the molecules are located in a very confined space. Therefore, even though the plasma is cold, the molecules must be moving very fast on average. This leads to the conclusion that if you want to compress an object into a very small space, you must use tremendous force to control its particles' momentum.
Unlike a classical ideal gas, whose pressure is proportional to its temperature (PV = NkT, where P is pressure, V is the volume, N is the number of particles (typically atoms or molecules), k is Boltzmann's constant, and T is temperature), the pressure exerted by degenerate matter depends only weakly on its temperature. In particular, the pressure remains nonzero even at absolute zero temperature. At relatively low densities, the pressure of a fully degenerate gas is given by
P = Kn5/3, where K depends on the properties of the particles making up the gas. At very high densities, where most of the particles are forced into quantum states with relativistic energies, the pressure is given by P = K'n4 / 3, where K' again depends on the properties of the particles making up the gas.
Degenerate matter still has normal thermal pressure, but at high densities the degeneracy pressure dominates. Thus, increasing the temperature of degenerate matter has a minor effect on total pressure until the temperature rises so high that thermal pressure again dominates total pressure.
The Pauli exclusion principle is a quantum mechanical principle formulated by Wolfgang Pauli in 1925. It states that no two identical fermions may occupy the same quantum state simultaneously. A more rigorous statement of this principle is that, for two identical fermions, the total wave function is anti-symmetric. For electrons in a single atom, it states that no two electrons can have the same four quantum numbers, that is, if n, l, and ml are the same, ms must be different such that the electrons have opposite spins.
In relativistic quantum field theory, the Pauli principle follows from applying a rotation operator in imaginary time to particles of half-integer spin. It does not follow from any spin relation in nonrelativistic quantum mechanics.
The Pauli exclusion principle is one of the most important principles in physics, mainly because the three types of particles from which ordinary matter is made--electrons, protons, and neutrons--are all subject to it; consequently, all material particles exhibit space-occupying behavior. The Pauli exclusion principle underpins many of the characteristic properties of matter from the large-scale stability of matter to the existence of the periodic table of the elements. Particles with antisymmetric wave functions are called fermions--and obey the Pauli exclusion principle. Apart from the familiar electron, proton and neutron, these include neutrinos and quarks (from which protons and neutrons are made), as well as some atoms like helium-3. All fermions possess "half-integer spin", meaning that they possess an intrinsic angular momentum whose value is
(Planck's constant divided by 2?) times a half-integer (1/2, 3/2, 5/2, etc.). In the theory of quantum mechanics, fermions are described by "antisymmetric states", which are explained in greater detail in the theory on identical particles. Particles with integer spin have a symmetric wave function and are called bosons; in contrast to fermions, they may share the same quantum states. Examples of bosons include the photon, the Cooper pairs responsible for superconductivity, and the W and Z bosons.
Neutrons are the most "rigid" objects known - their Young modulus (or more accurately, bulk modulus) is 20 orders of magnitude larger than that of diamond.
For white dwarfs the degenerate particles are the electrons while for neutron stars the degenerate particles are neutrons. In degenerate gas, when the mass is increased, the pressure is increased, and the particles become spaced closer together, so the object becomes smaller. Degenerate gas can be compressed to very high densities, typical values being in the range of 107 grams per cubic centimeter.
Preons are subatomic particles proposed to be the constituents of quarks, which become composite particles in preon-based models.
A neutron star is a large gravitationally-bound lump of electrically neutral nuclear matter, whose pressure rises from zero (at the surface) to an unknown value in the center.
A typical neutron star has a mass between 1.35 and about 2.1 solar masses, with a corresponding radius of about 12 km if the Akmal-Pandharipande-Ravenhall (APR) Equation of state (EOS) is used. In contrast, the Sun's radius is about 60,000 times that. Neutron stars have overall densities predicted by the APR EOS of 3.7 в 1017 (2.6 в 1014 times Solar density) to 5.9 в 1017 kg/mЁ (4.1 в 1014 times Solar density). which compares with the approximate density of an atomic nucleus of 3 в 1017 kg/mЁ. The neutron star's density varies from below 1 в 109 kg/mЁ in the crust increasing with depth to above 6 or 8 в 1017 kg/mЁ deeper inside.
Fig.7. Probability structure of neutron star.
The gravitational field at the star's surface is about 2в1011 times stronger than on Earth. The escape velocity is about 100,000 km/s, which is about one third the speed of light. Such a strong gravitational field acts as a gravitational lens and bends the radiation emitted by the star such that parts of the normally invisible spectrum near the surface become visible.
A neutron star is so dense that one teaspoon (5 millilitre) of its material would have a mass over 5в1012 kg. The resulting force of gravity is so strong that if an object were to fall from just one meter high it would hit the surface of the neutron star at 2 thousand kilometers per second, or 4.3 million miles per hour.
The Equation of state (EOS) for a Neutron star is still not known as of 2008[update].
On the basis of current models, the matter at the surface of a neutron star is composed of ordinary atomic nuclei as well as electrons.
Innovations and computations
Short information about atom and nuclei. Conventional matter consists of atoms and molecules. Molecules are collection of atoms. The atom contains a nucleus with proton(s) and usually neutrons (Except for Hydrogen-1) and electrons revolve around this nucleus. Every particle may be characterized by parameters as mass, charge, spin, electric dipole, magnetic moment, etc. There are four forces active between particles: strong interaction, weak interaction, electromagnetic charge (Coulomb) force and gravitational force. The nuclear force dominates at distances up to 2 fm (femto, 1 fm = 10-15 m). They are hundreds of times more powerful than the charge (Coulomb force and million-millions of times more than gravitational force. Charge (Coulomb) force is effective at distances over 2 fm. Gravitational force is significant near and into big masses (astronomical objects such as planets, stars, white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes). Strong force is so overwhelmingly powerful that it forces together the positively charged protons, which would repel one from the other and fly apart without it. The strong force is key to the relationship between protons, neutrons and electrons. They can keep electrons into or near nuclei. Scientists conventionally take into attention only of the strong force when they consider the nuclear and near nuclear size range, for the other forces on that scale are negligible by comparison for most purposes.
Fig.8. Typical nuclear force of nucleus. When nucleon is at distance of less than 1.8 fm, it is attracted to nucleus. When nucleon is very close, it is repulsed from nucleus.
(Reference from http://www.physicum.narod.ru , Vol. 5 p. 670).
Fig.9. Connection (interaction) energy of one nucleon via specific density of one nucleon in given point. Firm line is computed by Berkner's method with 2 correlations, dotted line is computer with 3 correlations, square is experiment. (Reference from http://www.physicum.narod.ru , Vol. 5 p. 655).
2. AB-Matter. In conventional matter made of atoms and molecules the nucleons (protons, neutrons) are located in the nucleus, but the electrons rotate in orbits around nucleus in distance in millions times more than diameter of nucleus. Therefore, in essence, what we think of as solid matter contains a -- relatively! --`gigantic' vacuum (free space) where the matter (nuclei) occupies but a very small part of the available space. Despite this unearthly emptiness, when you compress this (normal, non-degenerate) matter the electrons located in their orbits repel atom from atom and resist any great increase of the matter's density. Thus it feels solid to the touch.
The form of matter containing and subsuming all the atom's particles into the nucleus is named degenerate matter. Degenerate matter found in white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes. Conventionally this matter in such large astronomical objects has a high temperature (as independent particles!) and a high gravity adding a forcing, confining pressure in a very massive celestial objects. In nature, degenerate matter exists stably (as a big lump) to our knowledge only in large astronomical masses (include their surface where gravitation pressure is zero) and into big nuclei of conventional matter.
The developing of femtotechnology is easier, in one sense, than the developing of fully controllable nanotechnology because we have only three main particles (protons, neutrons, their ready combination of nuclei 2D, 3T, 4He, etc., and electrons) as construction material and developed methods of their energy control, focusing and direction.
Another way is using a construct of AB-Matter as a continuous film or net (fig. 13).
The AB-Matter film and net may be used for energy storage which can store up huge energy intensities and used also as rocket engines with gigantic impulse or weapon or absolute armor (see computation and application sections). Note that in the case of absolute armor, safeguards must be in place against buffering sudden accelerations; g-force shocks can kill even though nothing penetrates the armor!
Estimation and Computation of Properties of AB-Matter
1. Strength of AB-Matter.
Strength (tensile stress) of single string (AB-Matter monofilament). The average connection energy of two nucleons is
1 eV = 1.6в10-19 J, E = 8 MeV = 12.8в10-13 J. (1)
The average effective distance of the strong force is about l = 2 fm =2в10-15 m (1 fm = 10-15 m). The average connection force F the single thread is about
F1 = E/l = 6.4в102 N . (2)
This is worth your attention: a thread having diameter 100 thousand times less than an atom's diameter can suspend a weight nearly of human mass. The man may be suspended this invisible and permeable thread(s) and people will not understand how one fly.
Specific ultimate tensile stress of single string for cross-section area s = 2в2 = 4 fm2 =4в10-30 m2 is
? = F/s = 1.6в1032 N/m2. (3)
Compressive stress for E = 30 MeV and l = 0.4 fm (fig.1) is
? = E/sl = 3в1033 N/m2. (4)
The Young's modulus of tensile stress for elongation of break ? =1 is
I = ?/? = 1.6в1032 N/m2. (5)
The Young's modulus of compressive stress for ? =0.4 is
I = ?/? = 7.5в1033 N/m2. (6)
Comparison: Stainless steel has a value of ? = (0.65 - 1)в109 N/m2, I = 2в1011 N/m2. Nanotubes has ? = (1.4 ¤ 5)в1010 N/m2, I = 8в1011 N/m2 . That means AB-Matter is stronger by a factor of 1023 times than steel (by 100 thousands billion by billions times!) and by 1022 times than nanotubes (by 10 thousand billion by billions times!). Young's modulus, and the elastic modulus also are billions of times more than steel and elongation is tens times better than the elongation of steel.
Strength (average tensile force) of one m thin (one layer, 1 fm) film (1 m compact net) from single strings with step size of grid l = 2 fm =2в10-15 m is
F = F1 /l = 3.2в1017 N/m = 3.2в1013 tons/m. (7)
Strength (average tensile force) of net from single string with step (mesh) size l = 10-10 m (less than a molecule size of conventional matter) which does not pass the any usual gas, liquids or solid (an impermeable net, essentially a film to ordinary matter)
F = F1 /l = 6.4в1012 N/m = 6.4в108 tons/m. (8)
That means one meter of very thin (1 fm) net can suspend 100 millions tons of load.
The tensile stress of a permeable net (it will be considered later) having l = 10-7 m is
F = F1 /l = 6.4в109 N/m = 6.4в105 tons/m. (9)
The mass of 1 m of single string (AB-Matter. Monofilament) is
M1 = m/l =1.67в10-27/(2в10-15) = 8.35в10-13 kg. (10)
where m = 1.67в10-27 kg is mass of one nucleon; l = 2в10-15 is distance between nucleons, m., the volume of 1 m one string is v = 10-30 m3. That means the specific density of AB-Matter string and compact net is
d = ? = M1/v = 8.35в1017 kg/m3. (11)
That is very high (nuclear) specific density. But the total mass is nothing to be afraid of since, the dimensions of AB-Matter string, film and net are very small and mass of them are:
a) mass of string M1 = 8.35в10-13 kg (see (10)), (12)
b) mass of 1 m2 solid film Mf = M1/l = 4.17в102 kg, l = 2в10-15. (13)
c) mass of 1 m2 impenetrable net Mi = M1/l = 8.35в10-3 kg, l = 10-10 m, (14)
d) mass of 1 m2 permeable net Mp = M1/l = 8.35в10-6 kg, l = 10-7 m . (15)
As you see the fiber, nets from AB-Matter have very high strength and very small mass. To provide an absolute heat shield for the Space Shuttle Orbiter that could withstand reentries dozens of times worse than today would take only ~100 kilograms of mass for 1105 square meters of surface and the offsetting supports.
The specific strength coefficient of AB-Matter-- very important in aerospace-- [3]-]5] is
k = ?/d = 1.6в1032 /8.35в1017 =1.9в1014 (m/s)2 < c2 = (3в108 )2 = 9в1016 (m/s)2.(16)
This coefficient from conventional high strong fiber has value about k = (1 - 6) в109 [3]-[6].
AB-Matter is 10 million times stronger.
The specific mass and volume density of energy with AB-Matter are
Ev = E/v =1.6в1032 J/m3 , Em = E/mp =7.66в1014 J/kg . (17)
Here E=12.8в10-13 J is (1), mp = 1.67в10-27 kg is nucleon mass, kg, v = 8в10-45 m3 is volume of one nucleon. The average specific pressure may reach
p=F1/s=12.8в10-13/4в10-30 =3.2в10-27 N/m2.
3. Failure temperature of AB-Matter and suitability for thermonuclear reactors.
The strong nuclear force is very powerful. That means the outer temperature which must to be reached to destroy the AB fiber, film or net is Te = 6 MeV. If we transfer this temperature in Kelvin degrees we get
Tk = 1.16в104 Te = 7в1010K. (18)
That temperature is 10 thousands millions degrees. It is about 50 - 100 times more than temperature in a fusion nuclear reactor. The size and design of the fusion reactor may be small and simple (for example, without big superconductive magnets, cryogenics, etc). We can add the AB matter has zero heat/thermal conductivity (see later) and it cannot cool the nuclear plasma. This temperature is enough for nuclear reaction of the cheap nuclear fuel, for example, D + D. The AB matter may be used in a high efficiency rocket and jet engines, in a hypersonic aircraft and so on.
No even in theory can conventional materials have this fantastic thermal resistance!
4. Energy generated by production of AB-Matter.
Getting of AB-matter produces a large amount of nuclear energy. That energy is more than the best thermonuclear fusion reaction produces. Joining of each nucleon produces 8 MeV energy, when joining the deuterium D and tritium T (2+3=5 nucleolus) produced only 17.5 MeV (3.6 MeV for every nucleon). If we use the ready blocks of nucleons as the D=2H, T=3H, 4He, etc., the produced energy decreases. Using the ready nucleus blocks may be necessary because these reactions create the neutrons (n). For example:
2H + 2H ? 3He + n + 3.27 MeV, 3H + 2H ?4He + n + 17.59 MeV , (19)
which may be useful for producing the needed AB-Matter.
Using the ready blocks of nucleons decreases the energy getting in AB-Matter production but that decreases also the cost of needed material and enormously simplifies the technology.
A small part (0.7 MeV) of this needed energy will be spent to overcome the Coulomb barrier when the proton joins to proton. Connection of neutrons to neutron or proton does not request this energy (as there is no repulsion of charges). It should be no problem for current technology to accelerate the protons for energy 0.7 MeV.
For example, compute the energy in production of m = 1 gram = 0.001 kg of AB-Matter.
E1g = E1m/mp = 7.66в1011 J/g . (20)
Here E1= 8 MeV= 12.8в10-13 J - energy produced for joining 1 nucleon, mp =1.67в10-27 kg is mass of nucleon.
One kg of gasoline (benzene) produces 44 MJ/kg energy. That means that 1 g of AB-Matter requires the equivalent energy of 17.4 tons of benzene.
5. Super-dielectric strength of AB-Matter film. Dielectric strength equals
Ed = E/l =8 MV/10-15 m= 8в1015 MV/m . (21)
The best conventional material has dielectric strength of only 680 MV/m [4].
6. AB-Matter with orbiting electrons or immersed in electron cloud. We considered early the AB-Matter which contains the electrons within its' own string, film or net. The strong nuclear force keeps the electron (as any conventional matter particle would) in its sphere of influence. But another method of interaction and compensation of electric charges is possible- rotation of electrons around AB-Matter string (or other linear member) or immersing the AB-Matter string (or other linear member, or AB-Matter net --) in a sea of electrons or negative charged atoms (ions). The first case is shown in fig. 3d,e,g , the second case is shown in fig. 3f.
The first case looks like an atom of conventional matter having the orbiting electron around the nucleus. However our case has a principal difference from conventional matter. In normal matter the electron orbits around the nucleus as a POINT. In our case it orbits around the charged nuclear material (AB-Matter) LINE (some form of linear member from AB-Matter). That gives a very important difference in electrostatic force acting on the electron. In conventional cases (normal molecular matter) the electrostatic force decreases as 1/r2, in our AB-Matter case the electrostatic force decreases as 1/r. The interesting result (see below) is that the electron orbit in AB-Matter does follow the usual speed relationship to radius. The proof is below:
(22)
where m = me = 9.11в10-31 kg; V - electron speed, m/s; r is radius of electron orbit, m; ? is charge density in 1 m of single string, C/m; E is electrostatic intensity, A/m or N/C; k = 9в109 Nm2/C2 is electrostatic constant, e = 1.6в10-19 C is charge of electron, C; Np is number of proton in 1 m of single string, 1/m. As you see from last equation (22) the electron speed is not relative to radius. The real speed will be significantly less than given equation (22) because the other electrons block the charge of the rest of the string.
The total charge of the system is zero. Therefore we can put Np =1 (every electron in orbit is kept by only one proton in string). From last equation (22) we find V = 22.4 m/s. That means the electron speed carries only a very small energy.
In the second case the AB-Matter (string girder) can swim in a cloud (sea) of electrons. That case occurs in metals of conventional matter. But a lattice of metallic ions fills the volume of conventional metal giving drag to electron flow (causing electrical resistance).
The stringers and plate nets of AB-Matter can locate along the direction of electric flow. They constitute only a relatively tiny volume and will produce very small electric resistance. That means the AB-Matter may be quasi-super-conductivity or super-conductivity.
The electrons rotate around an AB-Matter string repel one from other. The tensile force from them is
. (23)
For distance d = 2в10-15 m the force equals F = 10.5 N. This force keeps the string and net in unfolded stable form.
We spoke about the fantastic tensile and compressive strength, rigidity, hardness, specific strength, thermal (temperature) durability, thermal shock, and big elongation of AB-Matter.
Short note about other miraculous AB-Matter properties:
1. Zero heat/thermal capacity. That follows because the mass of nucleons (AB-Matter string, film, net) is large in comparison with mass single atom or molecule and nucleons in AB-Matter have a very strong connection one to other. Conventional atoms and molecules cannot pass their paltry energy to AB-Matter! That would be equivalent to moving a huge dry-dock door of steel by impacting it with very light table tennis balls.
2. Zero heat/thermal conductivity. (See above).
3. Absolute chemical stability. No corrosion, material fatigue. Infinity of lifetime. All chemical reactions are acted through ORBITAL electron of atoms. The AB-Matter does not have orbital electrons (special cases will be considered later on). Nucleons cannot combine with usual atoms having electrons. In particular, the AB-Matter has absolute corrosion resistance. No fatigue of material because in conventional material fatigue is result of splits between material crystals. No crystals in AB-Matter. That means AB-Matter has lifetime equal to the lifetime of neutrons themselves. Finally a container for the universal solvent!
4. Super-transparency, invisibility of special AB-Matter-nets. An AB-Matter net having a step distance (mesh size) between strings or monofilaments of more than 100 fm = 10-13 m will pass visible light having the wave length (400 - 800)в10-9 m. You can make cars, aircraft, and space ships from such a permeable (for visible light) AB-Matter net and you will see a man (who is made from conventional matter) apparently sitting on nothing, traveling with high speed in atmosphere or space without visible means of support or any visible vehicle!
5. Impenetrability for gas, liquids, and solid bodies. When the AB-Matter net has a step size between strings of less than atomic size of 10-10 m, it became impenetrabile for conventional matter. Simultaneously it may be invisible for people and have gigantic strength. The AB-Matter net may -as armor--protect from gun, cannon shells and missiles.
6. Super-impenetrability for radiation. If the cell size of the AB-Matter net will be less than a wave length of a given radiation, the AB-Matter net does not pass this radiation. Because this cell size may be very small, AB net is perfect protection from any radiation up to soft gamma radiation (include radiation from nuclear bomb).
7. Full reflectivity (super-reflectivity). If the cell size of an AB-Matter net will be less than a wavelength of a given radiation, the AB-Matter net will then fully reflect this radiation. With perfect reflection and perfect impenetrability remarkable optical systems are possible. A Fresnel like lens might also be constructible of AB-Matter.
8. Permeable property (ghost-like intangibility power; super-passing capacity). The AB-Matter net from single strings having mesh size between strings of more than 100 nm = 10-11 m will pass the atoms and molecules through itself because the diameter of the single string (2в10-15 m) is 100 thousand times less then diameter of atom (3в10-10 m). That means that specifically engineered constructions from AB-Matter can be built on the Earth, but people will not see and feel them. The power to phase through walls, vaults, and barriers has occasionally been portrayed in science fiction but here is a real life possibility of it happening.
9. Zero friction. If the AB-Matter net has a mesh size distance between strings equals or less to the atom (3в10-10 m), it has an ideal flat surface. That means the mechanical friction may be zero. It is very important for aircraft, sea ships and vehicles because about 90% of its energy they spend in friction. Such a perfect surface would be of vast value in optics, nanotech molecular assembly and prototyping, physics labs, etc.
10. Super or quasi-super electric conductivity at any temperature. As it is shown in previous section the AB-Matter string can have outer electrons in an arrangement similar to the electronic cloud into metal. But AB-Matter strings (threads) can be located along the direction of the electric intensity and they will not resist the electron flow. That means the electric resistance will be zero or very small.
11. High dielectric strength (see (21)).
AB-Matter may be used for devices to produce high magnetic intensity.
Applications and new systems in Aerospace and aviation
1. Storage of gigantic energy.
As it is shown in [3]-[7], the energy saved by flywheel equals the special mass density of material (17). As you see that is a gigantic value of stored energy because of the extreme values afforded by the strong nuclear force. Car having a pair of 1 gram counterspun fly-wheels (2 grams total) (20) charged at the factory can run all its life without benzene. Aircraft or sea ships having 100 gram (two 50 gram counterspun fly-wheels) can fly or swim all its life without additional fuel. The offered flywheel storage can has zero friction and indefinite energy storage time.
2. New propulsion system of space ship.
The most important characteristic of rocket engine is specific impulse (speed of gas or other material flow out from propulsion system). Let us compute the speed of a part of fly-wheel ejected from the offered rocket system
(24)
Here V is speed of nucleon, m/s; E = 12.8в10-13 J (1) is energy of one nucleon, J; m = 1,67в10-27 kg is mass of one nucleon, kg. The value (24) is about 13% of light speed.
The chemical rocket engine has specific impulse about 3700 m/s. That value is 10 thousand times less. The electric rocket system has a high specific impulse but requires a powerful compact and light source of energy. In the offered rocket engine the energy is saved in the flywheel. The current projects of a nuclear rocket are very complex, heavy, and dangerous for men (gamma and neutron radiation) and have specific impulse of thousand of times less (24). The offered AB-Matter rocket engine may be very small and produced any rocket thrust in any moment in any direction.
The offered flywheel rocket engine used the AB-matter is presented in fig.7a. That is flywheel made from AB-matter. It has a nozzle 3 having control of exit mass. The control allows to exit of work mass in given moment and in given position of flywheel. The flywheel rotates high speed and the exhaust mass leave the rocket engine with same speed when the nozzle is open. In result the engine has thrust 6. As exhaust mass may be used any mass: liquid (for example, water), sand, small stones and other suitable planet or space material (mass). The energy needed for engine and space ship is saved in the revolving flywheel. This energy may be received at started planet or from space ship engine.
Fig. 14. Schema of new rocket and propulsion system. (a) Propulsion system from AB matter and storage energy. (b) Rocket with offered propulsion system.
Notations: 1 - cover (flywheel) from AB-matter; 2 - any work mass; 3 - nozzle with control of exit mass; 4 - direction of rotation; 5 - direction of exhaust mass; 6 - thrust; 7 - space ship; 8 - offered propulsion system; 9 - undercarriage; 10 - rotary mechanism; 11 - planet surface.
The rocket used the suggested engine is shown in fig, 7b. That has a cabin 7, the offered propulsion system 8, undercarriage 9 and rotary mechanism 10 for turning the ship in need position.
Let us to estimate the possibility of offered rocket. Notate, the relation of the exhaust mass to AM-matter cover mass of flywheel are taken a = 10, the safety (strength) factor b = 4. About 20% of space ship is payload and construction and 80% is the exhaust mass. Then exhaust speed of throw away mass and receiving speed by space ship are:
(25)
where V speed of exhausted mass, m/s; k = ?/d = 1.9в1014 (m/s)2 is strength coefficient (16); ms is final mass of rocket, kg; Vs = 8480 km/s is final speed of rocket, m/s; m is throw off mass, kg.
Let us to remind the escape speed of planets.
Table 1. Some data and escape speed from planets of Solar system.
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planets |
from Sun 106 km |
m/s2 |
speed km/s |
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from Sun 106 km |
m/s2 |
speed km/s |
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The Table 1 allows estimating how many times the offered rocket can flight to other planets using one refueling (re-energy). These numbers are (with returning back to Earth): to Moon - 420 times, to Mars - 280 times, to Venus - 200 times, to Jupiter 96 times and out of Solar system 7 times.
Fig.15. Possible form of space ship from AB matter.
Capability of an AB-Matter flywheel to spin up and ejection matter at huge speed (24)-(25) may be used as a long distance super-weapon.
4. Super-armor from conventional weapons.
The value (24) gives the need speed for break through (perforation) of a shield of AB-Matter. No weapon which can give this speed exists at the present time. Remain, the AB-Matter may be radiation impermeable. That means AB-Matter can protect from a nuclear bomb and laser weapon.
5. Simple thermonuclear reactor.
The AB-Matter film may be used as the wall of a simple thermonuclear reactor. The AB-Matter film allows a direct 100% hit by the accelerated nuclei to stationary nuclei located into film. You get a controlled nuclear reaction of cheap fuel. For example:
1H + 1H ? 2H + e+ + ? + 0.42 MeV , 2H + 1H ? 3He + ? + 5.494 MeV , (26)
2H + 2H ? 3H + 1H + 4.033 MeV , 3H + 1H ? 4He + ? + 16.632 MeV . (27)
Here e+ is electron; ? is neutrino; ? is ?-quantum, photon (?-radiation); 1H = p is proton; 2H = D is deuterium; 3H = T is tritium; He is helium.
In conventional thermonuclear reactor the probability of a hit by the accelerated (or highly heated) nuclei to other nuclei is trifling. The accelerated particles, which run through ghostlike ATOMS and lose the energy, need therefore to be sent through to repeated collisions each of which loses energy until the one that hits and generates energy. The winner must pay for all the losers. That way we need big, very complex, and expensive high temperature conventional thermonuclear reactors. They are so nearly unbuildable because ordinary matter literally cannot take the reactions they are designed to contain, and therefore special tricks must be used to sidestep this, and the reactions are so improbable that again special tricks are required. Here, every shot is a hit and the material can endure every consequence of that hit. A good vacuum system and a means of getting power and isotopes in and out are the main problems, and by no means insuperable ones. Using the AB-Matter we can design a micro-thermonuclear AB reactor.
6. High efficiency rocket, jet and piston aviation engines.
The efficiency conventional jet and rocket engines are very limited by the temperature and safety limits of conventional matter (2000oK). If we will design the rotor blades (in jet engine), combustion chamber (in rocket and piston engines) from AB-Matter, we radically improve their capacities and simplify their construction (for example, no necessary cooling system!).
Fig.16. Possible form of aircraft from AB matter
7. Hypersonic aircraft.
The friction and heat which attacks conventional materials for hypersonic aircraft limits their speed. Using the AB-Matter deletes this problem. Many designs for aerospace planes could capture oxygen in flight, saving hauling oxidizer and carrying fuel alone--enabling airliner type geometries and payloads since the weight of the oxidizer and the tanks needed to hold it, and the airframe strengths required escalate the design and cascade through it until conventional materials today cannot build a single stage to orbit or antipodes aerospace plane. But that would be quite possible with AB-Matter.
8. Increasing efficiency of a conventional aviation and transport vehicles.
AB-Matter does not experience friction. The air drag in aviation is produced up 90% by air friction on aircraft surface. Using AB-Matter will make jump in flight characteristics of aircraft and other transport vehicles (including sea ships and cars).
9. Improving capabilities of all machines.
Appearance new high strength and high temperature AB-Matter will produce jump, technology revolution in machine and power industries.
10. Computer and computer memory.
The AB-Matter film allows to write in 1 cm2 N = 1/(4в10-26) = 2.5в1025 1/cm2 bits information. The current 45 nanometer technology allows to write only N = 2.5в1014 1/cm2 bit. That means the main chip and memory of computer based in AB-Matter film may be a billion times smaller and presumably thousands of times faster (based on the lesser distance signals must travel).
The reader can imagine useful application of AB-Matter in any field he is familiar with.
Discussion
1. Pauli exclusion principle and Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. General Question of Stability.
The reader may have questions about compatibility of the Pauli exclusion principle and Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle with AB-Matter. The uncertainty principle is
. (27)
where ?p = mV is momentum of particle, kg.m/s; m is mass particles, kg; V is speed particles, m/s; ?x is distance between particles, m;
= 6.6262в10-34/2? is Planck's constant.
Pauli states that no two identical fermions may occupy the same quantum state simultaneously. A more rigorous statement of this principle is that, for two identical fermions, the total wave function is anti-symmetric. For electrons in a single atom, it states that no two electrons can have the same four quantum numbers, that is, if particles caracteristics n, l, and ml are the same, ms must be different such that the electrons have opposite spins.
The uncertainty principle gives a high uncertainty of ?p for nucleons and very high uncertainty for electrons into AB-Matter. But high density matter (of the same order as our suggested AB-Matter) EXISTS in the form of nuclei of conventional matter and on neutron stars. That is an important proof - this matter exists. Some may question its' ability to stay in a superdense state passively. Some may doubt its' stability free of the fierce gravitation of neutron stars (natural degenerate matter) or outside the confines of the nucleus. But there are reasons, not all stated here, to suppose that it might be so stable under normal conditions.
One proof was provided by Freeman Dyson [11] and Andrew Lenard in 1967, who considered the balance of attractive (electron-nuclear) and repulsive (electron-electron and nuclear-nuclear) forces and showed that ordinary matter would collapse and occupy a much smaller volume without the Pauli principle.
Certainly, however this very question of stability will be a key focus of any detailed probe into the possiblities of AB-Matter.
Conclusion
The author offers a design for a new form of nuclear matter from nucleons (neutrons, protons), electrons, and other nuclear particles. He shows that the new AB-Matter has most extraordinary properties (for example, (in varying circumstances) remarkable tensile strength, stiffness, hardness, critical temperature, superconductivity, super-transparency, ghostlike ability to pass through matter, zero friction, etc.), which are millions of times better than corresponded properties of conventional molecular matter. He shows how to design aircraft, ships, transportation, thermonuclear reactors, and constructions, and so on from this new nuclear matter. These vehicles will have correspondingly amazing possibilities (invisibility, passing through any walls and amour, protection from nuclear bombs and any radiation, etc).
People may think this fantasy. But fifteen years ago most people and many scientists thought - nanotechnology is fantasy. Now many groups and industrial labs, even startups, spend hundreds of millions of dollars for development of nanotechnological-range products (precise chemistry, patterned atoms, catalysts, metamaterials, etc) and we have nanotubes (a new material which does not exist in Nature!) and other achievements beginning to come out of the pipeline in prospect. Nanotubes are stronger than steel by a hundred times--surely an amazement to a 19th Century observer if he could behold them.
Nanotechnology, in near term prospect, operates with objects (molecules and atoms) having the size in nanometer (10-9 m). The author here outlines perhaps more distant operations with objects (nuclei) having size in the femtometer range, (10-15 m, millions of times less smaller than the nanometer scale). The name of this new technology is femtotechnology.
I want to explain the main thrust of this by analogy. Assume we live some thousands of years ago in a great river valley where there are no stones for building and only poor timber. In nature we notice that there are many types of clay (nuclei of atom--types of elemet). One man offers to people to make from clay bricks (AB-Matter) and build from these bricks a fantastic array of desirable structures too complex to make from naturally occuring mounds of mud. The bricks enable by increased precision and strength things impossible before. A new level of human civilization begins.
I call upon scientists and the technical community to to research and develop femtotechnology. I think we can reach in this field progress more quickly than in the further prospects of nanotechnology, because we have fewer (only 3) initial components (proton, neutron, electron) and interaction between them is well-known (3 main forces: strong, weak, electostatic). The different conventional atoms number about 100, most commone moleculs are tens thousands and interactions between them are very complex (e.g. Van der Waals force).
It may be however, that nano and femto technology enable each other as well, as tiny bits of AB-Matter would be marvellous tools for nanomechanical systems to wield to obtain effects unimaginable otherwise.
What time horizon might we face in this quest? The physicist Richard Feynman offeredhis idea to design artificial matter from atoms and molecules at an American Physical Society meeting at Caltech on December 29, 1959. But only in the last 15 years we have initial progress in nanotechnology. On the other hand progress is becoming swifter as more and better tools become common and as the technical community grows.
Now are in the position of trying to progress from the ancient `telega' haywagon of rural Russia (in analogy, conventional matter composites) to a `luxury sport coupe' (advanced tailored nanomaterials). The author suggests we have little to lose and literal worlds to gain by simultaneously researching how to leap from `telega' to `hypersonic space plane'. (Femotech materials and technologies, enabling all the wonders outlined here).
REFERENCES
(The reader may find some of related articles at the author's web page http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm; http://arxiv.org , http://www.scribd.com search "Bolonkin"; http://aiaa.org search "Bolonkin"; and in the author's books: "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier, London, 2006, 488 pages; "New Concepts, Ideas, Innovations in Aerospace, Technology and Human Science", NOVA, 2008, 502 pages and "Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology", NOVA 2009, 536 pages).
http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057930
6. Bolonkin A.A., Human Immortality and Electronic Civilization, Lulu, 2007, 3-rd Edition: English version 60 pgs,
$9.9; Russian version 101 pgs, $9.9 . http://www.scribd.com/doc/24053302
8. Tables of Physical values. Reference book, Editor I.K. Kikoin, Moscow, 1976, 1006 pgs.(in Russian).
10. Dresselhaus, M.S., Carbon Nanotubes, Springer, 2000.
Commons license. http://wikipedia.org
Possible forms of future space apparatus used AB-matter
Chapter 3
Femtotechnology. AB-needles: Stability, Possible Production and Application
In article "Femtotechnology: Nuclear AB-Matter with Fantastic Properties" [1] American Journal of
Engineering and Applied Sciences. 2 (2), 2009, p.501-514. (http://www.scribd.com/doc/24045154) author offered and consider possible super strong nuclear matter. But many readers asked about stability of the nuclear matter. It is well known, the conventional nuclear matter having more 92 protons or more 238 nucleons became instability. In given work the author shows the special artificial forms of nuclear AB-matter make its stability and give the fantastic properties. For example, by the offered AB-needle you can pierce any body without any damage, support motionless satellite, reach the other planet, researched Earth's interior. These forms of nuclear matter are not in Nature now, but nanotubes also is not in Nature. That is artificial matter is made men. The AB-matter also is not now, but research and investigation their possibility, stability and properties are necessary for creating them.
Key words: Femtotechnology, FemtoTech, AB-matter, AB-needle, application AB-matter, stability AB-matter.
1. Brief history. On December 29, 1959 the physicist Richard Feynman offered his idea to design artificial matter from atoms and molecules at an American Physical Society meeting at Caltech. If he was not widely well-known famous physicist, the audience laughed at him and drove away from the podium. All scientists accepted his proposal as joke. How can you see the molecule? How can you catch the molecule? How can you connect it to other? How many millions of years you will create one milligram of matter? And thousands of same questions don't having answers may be asked. Any schoolboy has seed that Feynman proposal is full fantasy which does not relation to real technology.
About 40 years the scientists had not see a way for implementation of this idea. But only in the last 15 years we have initial progress in nanotechnology. On the other hand progress is becoming swifter as more and better tools become common and as the technical community grows.
On 14 February 2009 the author offered the idea design of new matter from protons, neutrons and electrons, made initial research and published the article about it [1]. These particles in million times are smaller then molecules.
He researched and shown the new AB-matter will have the fantastic properties. That will be in millions times stronger than nanotubes and can keeps the millions degrees of temperature. That may be invisible and permeable to ordinary matter.
The many readers, who did not read carefully the author's article and who remember from school course that the nucleus became unstable if number of protons are more 92 or number of nucleons is more 238, raised the cry that the AB-matter is impossible. They did not seen the main DIFFERENCE between conventional matter (conventional nucleus) and AB-matter. The conventional matter has nucleus which has a chaotic spherical LUMP (nucleus) of nucleons, the AB-matter is LINE from nucleons NOT having the nucleus.
The author considers below this AB-line and shows that line IS STABLE and has surprise property: one is a high rigid rod (needle), which the compressed force DOES NOT depend from rod length! This AB-rods (needles) you can support the Earth's satellite, reach the other planets, penetrate into the Earth interior and into any molecules of man without damage of its body.
2. Short information about offered matter. In [1], figs.5, 6 it is shown the AB-matter may have forms (Fig.1).
3. AB-Matter. In conventional matter made of atoms and molecules the nucleons (protons, neutrons) are located in the nucleus, but the electrons rotate in orbits around nucleus in distance in millions times more than diameter of nucleus. Therefore, in essence, what we think of as solid matter contains a -- relatively! --`gigantic' vacuum (free space) where the matter (nuclei) occupies but a very small part of the available space. Despite this unearthly emptiness, when you compress this (normal, non-degenerate) matter the electrons located in their orbits repel atom from atom and resist any great increase of the matter's density. Thus it feels solid to the touch.
The form of matter containing and subsuming all the atom's particles into the nucleus is named degenerate matter. Degenerate matter found in white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes. Conventionally this matter in such large astronomical objects has a high temperature (as independent particles!) and a high gravity adding a forcing, confining pressure in a very massive celestial objects. In nature, degenerate matter exists stably (as a big lump) to our knowledge only in large astronomical masses (include their surface where gravitation pressure is zero) and into big nuclei of conventional matter.
Our purpose is to design artificial small masses of synthetic degenerate matter in form of an extremely thin strong thread (fiber, filament, string, needle), round bar (rod), tube, net (dense or non dense weave and mesh size) which can exist at Earth-normal temperatures and pressures. Note that such stabilized special form matter in small amounts does not exist in Nature as far as we know. Therefore author has named this matter AB-Matter. Just as people now design by the thousands variants of artificial materials (for example, plastics) from usual matter, we soon (historically speaking) shall create many artificial, designer materials by nanotechnology (for example, nanotubes: SWNTs (amchair, zigzag, ahiral), MWNTs (fullorite, torus, nanobut), nanoribbon (plate), grapheme, buckyballs (ball), fullerene). Sooner or later we may anticipate development of femtotechnology and create such AB-Matter. Some possible forms of AB-Matter are shown in fig.3.
The main difference the AB-matter from conventional matter is a strict order of location the proton and neutrons (for example: proton-neutron-proton-neutron-.... ) in line (string) or in the super thin (in one nucleon) plate (nuclear graphene). That gives the strong tensile stress (electrostatic repulse force) which does not allow the nucleons to mix in messy clump (ball). This force is less than a nuclear force if the AB-matter has a form where the most protons are located far from one other, where the nuclear force from the far protons is absent. That is in line, net and plate (fig.1a,b,d), but that may be absent in the solid beam, rod (fig. 3c,d) if their cross-section area contains a lot of nucleons.
The other problem: compensation the positive charges is solved by rotation electrons around the AB string, rod, tube, net (grid) or an electron cloud near the plate [1] or the electron locates near nucleons,
The AB-Matter film and net may be used for energy storage which can store up huge energy intensities and used also as rocket engines with gigantic impulse or weapon or absolute armor (see computation and application sections in [1]). Note that in the case of absolute armor, safeguards must be in place against buffering sudden accelerations; g-force shocks can kill even though nothing penetrates the armor!
2. Law of Stability of the nuclear AB-matter
Conventional matter consists of atoms and molecules. Molecules are collection of atoms. The atom contains a nucleus with proton(s) and usually neutrons (except for Hydrogen-1) and electrons revolve around this nucleus. Every particle may be characterized by parameters as mass, charge, spin, electric dipole, magnetic moment, etc. There are four forces active between particles: strong interaction, weak interaction, electromagnetic charge (Coulomb) force and gravitational force. The nuclear force dominates at distances up to 2 fm (femto, 1 fm = 10-15 m). They are hundreds of times more powerful than the charge (Coulomb) force and million-millions of times more than gravitational force. Charge (Coulomb) force is effective at distances over 2 fm. Gravitational force is significant near and into big masses (astronomical objects such as planets, stars, white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes). Strong force is so overwhelmingly powerful that it forces together the positively charged protons, which would repel one from the other and fly apart without it. The strong force is key to the relationship between protons, neutrons and electrons. They can keep electrons into or near nuclei. Scientists conventionally take into attention only of the strong force when they consider the nuclear and near nuclear size range, for the other forces on that scale are negligible by comparison for most purposes.
Fig.4. Typical nuclear force of nucleus. When nucleon is at distance of less than 1.8 fm, it is attracted to nucleus. When nucleon is very close, it is repulsed from nucleus.
(Reference from http://www.physicum.narod.ru , Vol. 5 p. 670).
The necessary condition (prerequisite LAW) of stability the AB-matter are following:
1) The number of protons must be less approximately 90 into a local sphere of radius 3 fm in any points of AB-matter;
2) The number of nucleons must be less approximately 240 into a local sphere of radius 3 fm in any points of AB-matter.
3) The AB-matter contains minimum two protons.
That law follows from relation between attractive nuclear and repulsive electrostatic forces into nucleus. The nuclear force is short distance force (2 fm), the electrostatic force is long distance. When number of protons is more 92, the repulsive electrostatic force may became the more than nuclear force and electrostatic force may destroy the AB-matter.
Consequent. That law means: the number of nucleons in any cross-section area AB-matter design of fig.3 must be less 37.
Than is very important properties. This property does not have the conventional molecular matter, because the conventional matter contains the neutral molecules. The charges of ions in conventional matter locate far one from other and repulsive force is small. That property discovered by author gives the AB-string the amusing feature: an independent of the safety press stress from LENGTH of the nuclear string. Remand: the safety press force of long conventional matter strong depends from length of wire, beam, shaft, etc. According to the Euler's law the safety compressive force in the ordinary matter is inversely proportional to the square of the length of the rod. If the length of rod is more the safety length, the construction loss the stability (one is bending). You cannot push the car a thread or thin wire having one km length. They bend.
The AB thin string can pass the compressive force for any length of string. That why it is named the AB-needle. AB-needle allows penetrating into any conventional matter, into the interior of Earth, planets, Sun. They allow making the interplanetary trips and investigations of planet from Earth.
Fig.5. Connection of nucleons in string (needle) (fig.2a,b,c) and film, plate (fig.5d,e) and Coulomb (electrostatic, repulse) force. Notations: 1- protons, 2 - neutrons, 3 - repulse (Coulomb) force from protons.
Let us estimate the forces into AB-needle.
1) Nuclear attractive force. The radius of proton is r = 0.877 fm (10-15 m). The connection energy of proton and neutron pn (2H or 2D) is about E = 1 MeV = 1.6в10-13 J; the connection energy of pnn (3H or 3He) is 3 MeV; the energy of pnpn (4He) is 4 MeV. Let us take the average connection energy 2 MeV. The distance (where the nuclear force is actives) is about l = 1 fm. Consequently the average attractive nuclear force is
. (1)
That is huge value because the cross-section area of AB-needle is millions times less than the diameter of the simplest molecules of hydrogen. Note: this force appears only when the outer force went to break the AB-noodle. If no outer tensile force the internal strong nuclear force equals zero.
, (2)
where k = 9"109 . Substitute an electric charge e = 1.6. 10-19 C and 2r = d = 1.754 fm . We receive F1p = 74.8 N.
The electric repulsive force decreases with distance d = 2r between protons. If we summarize the repulsive force from all protons in line pppp.... of AB-needle (fig.5, marked 1), we received
Fp = 1.64 F1p - 123 N. (3)
That means the AB-needle has gigantic internal stress which extend the AB-needle. That extended stress is less than the attractive maximum nuclear force and one does NOT depends from length of AB-needle. This extended stress decreases the maximal outer stretch force but one allows to keep the AB-needle the compress force while they are less then extended force. If the press force is more than extended force the AB-needle not break, that only bends and continue to keep the maximal press force.
In case pnnpnn... (fig. 5, mark 3) the force Fp (3) decreases in nine times (32 = 9) and equals Fp - 14 N.
This tensile stress is transmitted through the protons to other end of AB-needle. That means the large pressure on the ends of AB-needle is passing along thin AB-needle through electrostatic repel force and one does not depend from length of AB-needle.
That may be illustrated by a children long inflatable air-balloon (fig.7a). This press force also not depends from length of balloon. The force is transfered by compressed air. This idea was used by author in design the inflatable space tower [Bolonkin A.A., Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight, Elsevier, 2005, Ch. 4].
The tension Fp actives along all length of AB-needle and does not allow to curl the AB-string into the lamb - conventional nucleus. This tension works when no other closed protons with a side of the string. When AB-needle is created, the outside protons cannot joint to AB-needle because the protons repel each other.
The proton and neutron have the magnetic dipole moments. Magnetic dipole moment of proton equals +1.41"10-26 J/T, of neutron equals -0.966 "10-26 J/T. They are small magnets having magnetic force some newtons. That also allows creating the stable AB-needles, to arrange them in a certain position and order.
The AB-needle can also keep the maximal side force F2 - 0.5F1 (fig.7b). That allows to accelerate anybody (for example space ship) in side direction, to produce an elastic design (for example, air bridge, storage of mechanical energy, long arm (hand), etc.). AB-matter designs do not have the drawbacks of the ordinary matter as fatigue, residual strain and the susceptibility to the external environment.
One meter of AB-needle has line having n = 5.7.10-14 nucleons with mass m = 1.67. 10-27 kg. Total mass of one meter AB-needle equals only 10-12 kg/m.
M1 = nm = 5.7.10-14 в1.67. 10-27 = 10-12 kg/m.
One millions of kilometers of AB-needle weights only 10-3 kg/Mm. For transfer the large force we can take the thin cable from AB-needles.
Summary: Three above necessary condition, repulsive force of protons and magnetic force of nucleons can make the stability AB-matter.
4. Application of AB-needles.
The many applications of super strong AB-matter are shown in [1]-[6]. The discovery by author the unique property of super thin AB-needle to transfer the pressure in any long distance opens the new gigantic application of AB-needles. Some of these applications are shown below.
In our consideration you must remember that nuclear AB-needle in million times is less than the simplest hydrogen molecule. Our AB-needles in this molecule is as conventional rod traveling in Solar system. The probability to meet planet, asteroid or meteor in space is very small. The tens of thousands the artificial wastes are rotate around (near) Earth. The meet with any of them is catastrophe for satellite or space ship or station. But no case when a space garbage damaged the space ship. Into molecular space the AB-needle can meet very rare only nucleus. But they charged positive as AB-needle and they will move away by electric force from AB-needle.
1. Penetration into human body. We can penetrate into the human body by AB-needle (cable from AB-needles) without body damage. We reach in any cells of human body. We can design the artificial arm (hand) (fig.7f) of the long in hundreds of kilometers, connect to end of arm the femto TV, femto devices, observe and manipulate into human body.
We can work from distance in hundreds kilometers. The man will not see our artificial arm and not feel as AB-needle penetrates into his body. We can repair or damage his body. Any conventional wall, armor, underground shelter cannot to protest him, except special AB-matter (AB-armor).
We can build (work) by AB-hand the home when we locate hundreds or thousands of kilometers from objects.
2. Geological exploration. Capability of AB-needle to penetrate into any conventional matter is very useful in geology. The AB-needle having the need femto devices can reach the any depth of the Earth (include kernel) and investigate and research them (fig.6f). Search for minerals is greatly simplified. You can find oil, gas, water, gold under your house. Moreover as it will be shown later you can search of minerals into other planets, asteroids without space flight, sitting at home. You can research the internal kernel of Sun because the AB-needle can keep the millions of degree temperature.
3. Transportation of any body. You can take by artificial AB-hand any things in distance hundreds kilometers and move to you or any other place.
4. Air transportation. You can connect any cities by air line of AB-needles (fig.7f) and delivery loads. This line is not an obstacle for general aviation and matter. They will not see and not feel it. The cars, tracks, individual men can move along them using the special hook and motor. For people on ground they are flying in the sky. The invisible air bridge through the strait, river, gulf, canyon, mountain may be built in some minutes.
5. Suspending houses. The building may be suspended over Earth (include sea, ocean) surface. The invisible, permeable AB-rod will support them (fig. 7e). They do not damage environment and cheaper of conventional building because they do not having the house foundation. People have a beautiful view. The humanity can colonize the sea and ocean.
6. Storage of mechanical energy. The AB-cable wounded on a microscopic coil is capable of accumulating the gigantic energy and return it as mechanical energy with 100% efficiency. That may be rotation (as spring in old mechanical clock) or a push force as it shown in fig.7b.
Estimation of a maximal specific storage energy Ems [N/kg] approximately is
, (3)
Below is table which shows the some properties of some protection of AB-nets.
Table 1. Protection of some AB-nets (pnpn...) and their properties.
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8. AB-needles and space flight. The AB-needles (cables) open the gigantic possibilities in the space research and flight.
You can use the AB-hand manipulator (arm) from AB-needs having length of hundreds millions kilometers and keeping the femto devices in end (fig.7d). If mass of devices is 1 - 10 kg, the mass of AB-hand must be 1 - 10 grams for 1 million of kilometers. The distance to Moon is 384,400 km, to Mars 78 millions km (when Mars is closest position, every two years). You can study and research these space bodies (include interior) from your home. Moreover, using the power AB-hand, you can build house on the plane before you will travel to it.
We can lift by AB-cable the loads into space in a distance in thousand km (figs. 6b, 7b), keep the motion less satellites, and delivery the satellites to other planets. No problem, to build the Space Elevator include GEO (and over) Space Elevator from Earth surface (fig.7c). No problem with conventional cable for Space Elevator. Any space garbage, meteorite from conventional matter cannot damage the femto cable because the femto cable penetrates the nano matter.
We can free and quick flight to space in the manner space ships (fig.7d). The small spool of AB-cable will accelerate and inhibit the space ships and permanent connection of him to Earth. Below reader finds computation the time, speed and some other parameters of space flights to planets of solar system by offered AB-space ship.
Table2. Computation of space flight to solar planets by manner AB-space ship.
The acceleration and inhibition have g = 10m/s2, mass of space ship is 3 tons.
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103 sec |
time, Days |
speed, km/s |
AB-cable kg |
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The possible particles is shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Charge, impulse and magnetic moments of some nucleus
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+e=1.6"10Ђ19 C |
number |
moment, ? |
moment, ЅN |
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opposite the impulse moment.
Notes about possible form AB-needles. The possible form of AB-needles are shown in fig. 8.
The first form marked 1 (pppp...) contains only line of protons. This form is cheapest and has maximum the pressure strength. But it is unknown, this form is possible or no. It is known the single hydrogen and single proton is stable. In other side the fusion of two SINGLE hydrogen nuclei 1H (protons) produces deuterium 2H= D (pn) releasing a positron and a neutrino as one proton changes into a neutron:
The positron immediately annihilates with an electron, and their mass energy is carried off by two gamma ray photos:
But the most nucleus has a lot of protons and they not relies the reaction (4). The AB-needle also has a lot of protons. If reaction (4) is released, the form 1 transfers in form 2 (fig. 8) and the process produces a lot of a nuclear energy. The ionized conventional hydrogen 1H may be used for production of AB-matter. I remain: the Universe is composed of about 80% hydrogen. In result we will have the AB-needle in form npnp... .
The second form of AB-needle is pnpn... marked 2 (fig.8). This form may be produced directly from deuterium D oriented by magnetic field along axis of AB-needles.
The third form of the double AB-needles marked 3 (fig. 8) also may be produced directly from deuterium D oriented by magnetic field perpendicular of axis of AB-needles.
The forth form of four-needles marked 4 (fig.8) may be produced directly from helium 4He oriented by magnetic field perpendicular of axis of AB-needles.
1) Toroid method. One of installation for production of AB-needles is shown in fig. 9. The installation has a vacuum topoid 1 and particles gun 4 which injects charged particles into toroid. The perpendicular (to fig.) magnetic lines 2 penetrate the toroid. As result the charged particles 3 move in circles inside the toroid. This electric current of particles produces the magnetic field 5 (pinch-affect). This field pulls the particles in a cord and helps to keep them into the toroid ring.
The producing AB-needles 8 locate inside the topoid ring and are kept by special local magnetic field 9 in position along the circle axis of the toroid ring. That means the moving particles can connect to AB-needles only to end nucleus when they collide the forward end of AB-needle and their energy is sufficient to overcome the Coulomb repulsion. The toroid ring has the accelerators 6, 11 and focusers 7, 10 of particles. Their electric fields collect the scattered charged particles back to toroid axis.
Probability of hitting in the front end of the AB-needles is small. But the charged particles rotate into toroid a lot (millions) of times and join to end of AB-needles. Note they can connect only to end of AB-needle. Their perpendicular speed to the toroid circle axis does not enough for overcame the nuclear repulsion force.
Author wrote only the principal scheme (schematic diagram) of the AB-needle producing. The developing of this method may request a big research and work.
3) Third method: Method standing waves. The current special mirrors [4, Ch.12] and lasers allow to create the net of electromagnetic traps for AB-matter producer (fig. 11) from the monochromatic polarized electromagnetic standing waves (fig. 11a,b). That net may partially changes the net of AB-matter traps of the fig. 10b and increase the efficiency. This method may be useful for AB-matter producer in [1].
Fig. 10. Method particle traps for production of the AB-needles. Notations: a - device; b - particle traps; 1 - vacuum cell; 2- charged particles; 3 - magnetic lines; 4 - electric issue for the acceleration nets; 5 - plasma from particles; 6 - flow of electrons; 7 - AB-needles; 8 - trap made from AB-matter for the charged particles (p, 2H, 4He, etc.) ; 9 - cell for cover the AB-needles by electrons.
Fig.11. Net of electromagnetic traps for AB-matter producer. Notations: (a) - forward view; (b) - the monochromatic polarized electromagnetic standing waves (electrostatic part, side view); (c) - particles storage and accelerator; 1 - net from the perpendicular monochromatic polarized electromagnetic standing waves; 2 - the electromagnetic monochromatic polarized standing wave; 3 - electric accelerator of particles; 4 - particles.
Also we can ionize the molecules (create the charged particles!) and apply the modified offered methods for design and production of the nano-matters.
Discussion
1. Super Micro-World from AB-Matter: An Amusing Thought-Experiment. AB-Matter may have 1015 ¤ 1043 times more particles in a given volume than a single atom. A human being, man made from conventional matter, contains about 5в1026 molecules. That means that `femto-beings' of equal complexity from AB-Matter (having same number of components) could be located in the volume of one microbe having size 10 ? = 10Ђ5 m. It is difficult to make the nano-robot (one is large for Nano World). But the smart small femto-robot is suitable for Nano World. In future the people could make the artificial intelligent super micro F-beings which can withstand a huge temperature, acceleration of electric field, travel to other stars, other galactic, live in stars and travel through black holes to other Universes and times.
2. Stability of AB-matter.
Readers usually ask: the connection (proton to proton) gives a new element when, after 92 protons, this element is unstable?
1) The any sphere having radius R - 6в10-15m in any point of structure figs. 1 - 4 must contain NOT more 238 nucleons (about 92 of them must be protons). That means any cross-section area of the solid rod, beam and so on of AB-structure (for example figs. 1b,c,g) must contain NOT more about 36 nucleons in any circle with R - 6в10-15m.
2) AB-matter must contains the proton in a certain order because the electrostatic repel forces of them give the stability of the given structure.
3) The magnetic force of protons allows also gives the different form of AB-matter.
The author offers a design for a new form of nuclear matter from nucleons (neutrons, protons), electrons, and other nuclear particles. He also suggested the necessary conditions of stability of AB-matter. He shows that the new AB-Matter has most extraordinary properties (for example, (in varying circumstances) remarkable tensile strength, stiffness, hardness, critical temperature, superconductivity, super-transparency, ghostlike ability to pass through matter, zero friction, etc.), which are millions of times better than corresponded properties of conventional molecular matter. He shows (in [2]) how to design aircraft, ships, transportation, thermonuclear reactors, and constructions, and so on from this new nuclear matter. These vehicles will have correspondingly amazing possibilities (invisibility, passing through any walls and amour, protection from nuclear bombs and any radiation, etc).
People may think this fantasy. But fifteen years ago most people and many scientists thought - nanotechnology is fantasy. Now many groups and industrial labs, even startups, spend hundreds of millions of dollars for development of nanotechnological-range products (precise chemistry, patterned atoms, catalysts, metamaterials, etc) and we have nanotubes (a new material which does not exist in Nature!) and other achievements beginning to come out of the pipeline in prospect. Nanotubes are stronger than steel by a hundred times--surely an amazement to a 19th Century observer if he could behold them.
Nanotechnology, in near term prospect, operates with objects (molecules and atoms) having the size in nanometer (10-9 m). The author here outlines perhaps more distant operations with objects (nuclei) having size in the femtometer range, (10-15 m, millions of times less smaller than the nanometer scale). The name of this new technology is femtotechnology.
I want to explain the main thrust of this by analogy. Assume we live some thousands of years ago in a great river valley where there are no stones for building and only poor timber. In nature we notice that there are many types of clay (nuclei of atom--types of element). One man offers to people to make from clay bricks (AB-Matter) and build from these bricks a fantastic array of desirable structures too complex to make from naturally occuring mounds of mud. The bricks enable by increased precision and strength things impossible before. A new level of human civilization begins.
I call upon scientists and the technical community to research and develop femtotechnology. I think we can reach in this field progress more quickly than in the further prospects of nanotechnology, because we have fewer (only 3) initial components (proton, neutron, electron) and interaction between them is well-known (3 main forces: strong, weak, electrostatic). The different conventional atoms number about 100, most commone moleculs are tens thousands and interactions between them are very complex (e.g. Van der Waals force).
It may be however, that nano and femto technology enable each other as well, as tiny bits of AB-Matter would be marvellous tools for nanomechanical systems to wield to obtain effects unimaginable otherwise.
What time horizon might we face in this quest? The physicist Richard Feynman offered his idea to design artificial matter from atoms and molecules at an American Physical Society meeting at Caltech on December 29, 1959. But only in the last 15 years we have initial progress in nanotechnology. On the other hand progress is becoming swifter as more and better tools become common and as the technical community grows.
Now are in the position of trying to progress from the ancient `telega' haywagon of rural Russia (in analogy, conventional matter composites) to a `luxury sport coupe' (advanced tailored nanomaterials). The author suggests we have little to lose and literal worlds to gain by simultaneously researching how to leap from `telega' to `hypersonic space plane'. (Femotech materials and technologies, enabling all the wonders outlined here).
(The reader may find some of these articles at the author's web page http://www.scribd.com , http://arxiv.org , http://www.archive.org , http://aiaa.org , search "Bolonkin" and in the books: "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier, London, 2005, 488 pages; "New Concepts, Ideas, Innovations in Aerospace, Technology and Human Science", NOVA, 2006, 502 pages and "Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology", NOVA 2007, 536 pages; "New Technologies and Revolutionary Projects", Scribd, 2008, 324 pgs,).
Engineering and Applied Sciences. 2 (2), 2009, p.501-514. Presented as paper AIAA-2009-4620 to 7th Annual
International Energy Convention Conference, 2-5 August 2009, Denver, CO, USA. [On line]:
http://www.scribd.com/doc/24045154 , http://www.scribd.com/doc/24046679/ .
http://www.archive.org/details/FemtotechnologyDesignOfTheStrongestAb-matterForAerospace
Applied Sciences. 2 (4), 2009, p.683-693. [on line] http://www.scribd.com/doc/24048466 .
4.Bolonkin A.A., "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier, 2005, http://www.archive.org/details/Non-rocketSpaceLaunchAndFlight, http://www.scribd.com/doc/24056182 .
Aerospace", NOVA, 2006 .http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057071 .
http://www.archive.org/details/NewConceptsIfeasAndInnovationsInAerospaceTechnologyAndHumanSciences .
http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm, http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057930 .
http://www.archive.org/details/Macro-projectsEnvironmentsAndTechnologies .
http://www.scribd.com/doc/32744477 ,
http://www.archive.org/details/NewTechnologiesAndRevolutionaryProjects .
16 Mb. http://www.scribd.com/doc/48229884,
http://www.archive.org/details/Life.Science.Future.biographyNotesResearchesAndInnovations .
7 April 2011
Chapter 4
Space Wing Electro Relativistic AB-Ship
Abstract
Author offers and develops the theory of a new class of space wing electro ship. A biplane wing and an electric field between the wings characterize this space ship. The interstellar and interplanetary mediums contain charged protons and other charged particles. The winged space ship can produce the lift, thrust and drag forces. The density of the space medium is small (100 - 105 charged particles/cm3) but the high ship speed allows creating enough force for maneuvers, turning, acceleration and braking of ship especially at near relativistic speeds. Author shows the ratio of lift force/drag of the space wing electro ship may reach 100 and maneuver of wing space is big advantageous compared to maneuver using conventional rocket methods. In addition the biplane wing easily may be converted into a very efficient engine (brake) using external space matter and achieve something close to simple photon propulsion. That means the proposed wing-brake-engine is the most efficient and technologically realistic space drive available at the present time. The offered wing design allows collecting of particles from a very large space area. The method also allows decreasing the drag of a ship body.
Introduction
A major problem with using rocket propulsion to reach the velocities required for interstellar flight is the enormous amounts of fuel required. Since that fuel must itself be accelerated, this result in an approximately exponential increase in mass as a function of velocity change at non-relativistic speeds, asymptotically tending to infinity as it approaches the speed of light.
In 1960 the physicist Robert W. Bussard proposed an interstellar ramjet engine [1]. Bussard proposed a ramjet variant of a fusion rocket capable of fast interstellar spaceflight, using an enormous magnetic field (ranging from kilometers to many thousands of kilometers in diameter) as a ram scoop to collect and compress hydrogen from the interstellar medium. High speeds force the reactive mass into a progressively constricted magnetic field, compressing it until thermonuclear fusion occurs. The magnetic field then directs the energy as rocket exhaust opposite to the intended direction of travel, thereby accelerating the vessel. In principle, the Bussard ramjet avoids this problem by not carrying fuel with it. An ideal ramjet design could in principle accelerate indefinitely until its mechanism failed. Ignoring drag, a ship driven by such an engine could theoretically accelerate arbitrarily close to the speed of light, and would be a very effective interstellar spacecraft. In practice, since the force of drag produced by collecting the interstellar medium increases approximately as its speed squared at non-relativistic speeds and asymptotically tends to infinity as it approaches the speed of light (taking all measurements from the ship's perspective), any such ramjet would have a limiting speed where the drag equals thrust. To produce positive thrust, the fusion reactor must be capable of producing fusion while still giving the incident ions a net rearward acceleration (relative to the ship).
The collected propellant can be used as reaction mass in a plasma rocket engine, ion rocket engine, or even in an antimatter-matter annihilation powered rocket engine. Interstellar space contains an average of 10--21 kg of mass per cubic meter of space, primarily in the form of non-ionized and ionized hydrogen, with smaller amounts of helium, and no significant amounts of other gasses. This means that the ramjet scoop must sweep 1018 cubic meters of space to collect one gram of hydrogen.
The obvious fuel source, the one proposed by Bussard, is fusion of hydrogen, the most common component of interstellar gas. Unfortunately, the proton-proton fusion rate is close to zero for this purpose: protons in the Sun on average survive for a billion years or more before reacting. Accordingly, an interstellar ramjet would have to be powered by other nuclear reactions, but the required isotopes are rare in the interstellar medium.
Bussard ramjet designs that use the collected hydrogen only as reaction mass are sometimes referred to as ram-augmented interplanetary or interstellar rockets (RAIR) to distinguish them from the designs that use the collected hydrogen as fuel.
Discussions of feasibility. T.A. Heppenheimer [2] analysed Bussard's original suggestion of fusing protons, but found the bremsstrahlung losses from compressing protons to fusion densities was greater than the power that could be produced by a factor of about 1 billion, thus indicating that the proposed version of the Bussard ramjet was infeasible.
There are a lot of principal physical and technology problems which disallow creating the Bussard ramjet. As it is shown in [3] Ch.4, pp.95-104 the ship's magnetic field is spinning up the charged particles which produce their own magnetic field opposed to the ship magnetic field and dramatically decreases it; the outer particles of the ship's ring magnetic field does not not collect charged particles and not produce a drag; the collection region of magnetic ring becames small when ship speed is high (close to a relativistic speed). The braking of particles by a plate (at ashort distance) produces dangerous X and ? radiation. The fusion nuclear reactor is very complex, expensive and absent in present time. This itself produces a dangerous nuclear radiation and so on.
Interstellar medium. Although space is very empty and the stars in the Milky Way are very far apart, the space between the stars contains a very diffuse medium of gas and dust astronomers call the interstellar medium (ISM). This medium consists of neutral hydrogen gas (HI), molecular gas (mostly H2), ionized gas (HII), and dust grains. The Milky Way Galaxy is filled with a very diffuse distribution of neutral hydrogen gas which has a typical density of about 1 atom/cm3 (10-24g/cm3).
The neutral hydrogen is distributed in clumpy fashion with cool, denser regions that astronomers call "clouds" but which are more like filaments. These regions have a typical temperature of about 100K and a density between 10--100 atoms/cm3. Surrounding the clouds is a warmer lower density medium with about 0.1 atom/cm3 and T ~ 1000K.
 and a diameter of 150 l.y. Within the GMCs are warm dense corse of order 2-3 l.y. in diameter, with T~100K and densities as high as n~107-109 molecules/cm3. It is in these regions where the star-formation process begins. There are thousands of GMCs in the Milky Way, mostly on the Spiral Arms and concentrated toward the Galactic Center. The total mass of molecular gas is estimated to be about equal to, or perhaps somewhat less (~25%) than, the mass of HI gas. |
Table 1. Density different parts of Interstellar medium [1]
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Principal Constituents of the ISM |
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Total Mass |
"Cloud" Mass |
Density |
Temperature |
|
HI gas |
~5 x 109 |
|
0.1-10 |
100-1000 |
|
H2 gas |
1-5 x 109 |
105-106 |
103-105 |
~10 |
|
Dust |
~5 x 107 |
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~40 |
|
HII gas |
|
100-1000 |
103-104 |
10,000 |
H II regions also provide a convenient way to map the structure of a galaxy because they are so large and luminous. In our galaxy the H II regions are distributed in a spiral pattern.
The Solar system has a protonic Solar wind having density 10 - 70 protons and speed 400 - 1000 m/s at Earth orbit [4] Ch.13, p.246. The Earth's top atmosphere has about 105 charged particles/cm3 at altitude 200 - 600 km and above [3] Ch.3 p.48. The UV light of star ionizes the hydrogen at a gigantic distance.
Description of the offered space wing electro-ship.
The wings may have a perpendicular position to the flight direction. In this case they can work as the efficient propulsion system (engine) or an electric brake of the space ship. When installation is used as wings or engine that consumes electric energy. When they use as the brake, they generate electric energy. The wing grid is made from thin wire and has large cells relative to the wire area. They located along the flight direction and have negligibly small medium drag. They may also be formed as tubes (or balls) from a very thin film covered by electric conductivity layer. In this case the thickness of film is very small and high energy space particles pierce through them.
The charged space medium (and plasma) is a mixture of the negative (electrons) and positive (protons,
ions) particles. The mass of electrons is less than the mass of protons by approximately two thousand times. Their acceleration proportionately more than the acceleration of protons. The electrons quickly leave the space between biplane wings. In addition, when the wing has a positive attack angle, the way of positive particles between biplane wings is more than the way of electrons. That way the offered wing produces the left force and simultaneously the inductive grad 10 shown in fig.2c. The computation of lift force, drag, inductive drag, thrust and brake are discussed in Computation and Estimation section.
Fig.1. Space wing AB-electroship. a - site view; b - forward view. Notations: 1 - Body of electrocraft; 2 - upper positive charged electric net (upper wing). Nets (grids) 1 and 2 together create the biplane wing in the horizontal position (along the charge flow) and jet-engine in vertical position (perpendicular to charge flow); 3 - lower negative charged electric net (lower wing); 4 - bracing; 5 - space charged particles (in the most cases: proton) or a charged flow; 6 - line of electrical intensity; 7 - deflected flow after wing; ? -attack angle of wing.
The thin film 6 is used as ionizer of neutral particles. They loss the part of its kinetic energy (energy of ionization about 14 eV for hydrogen) but heavy positive particles avoid collision with ship body.
Fig.2. Element of space net wing. a - horizontal position of the wing or the vertical electric intensity lines; b - vertical position of the wing or the horizontal position of intensity lines; c - inductive drag of the wing. Notations: 7 - accelerated (braked) space charged particles; 8 - wing force; 9 - lift force; 10 - inductive force; other notations are same with fig.1.
Fig.3. Body (fuselage) deflector of the charged particles (reducer of space drag). Notations: 1 - ship body (fuselage); 2, 3 - electric grids; 5 - flow of electric charges to a body entrance; 6 - thin film-ionizer. 7 - deflected positive charged particles.
The other design of fuselage deflector is shown in fig.4. Forward of body locates the ionizer from thin film and charged positive ball. The positive ball repels the protons and attractive the electrons. They avoid the collusion with ship body.
Fig.4. Other design of body (fuselage) deflector of the charged particles (reducer of space drag). Notations: 1 - ship body (fuselage); 2 - thin film ionizer; 3 - charged positive ball; 4 - charged positive particle (proton); 5 - charged negative particle (electron); 6 - trajectory of positive particle; 7 - trajectory of negative particle.
Fig.5 shows the simplest wing space ship. That has eight charged balls 11 - 18 from thin film covered by conductive layer. The balls are connected to space ship by the thin long wires 19 and rotated around ship. Centrifugal force compensates the attractive force of charged ball and lift force, thrust and drag forces. The ball allows gets an acceptable electric intensity on ball surface (< 100 Mv).
This design allows covering a large space area (up to tens of square km). That allows also easy conversion of the space wings into propulsion/drag system (without turning or translating the entire system) by switching of electric voltage into chosen other balls from a variety deployed throughout the craft (analogous to firing only certain rockets of a built in reaction control system (RCS) in traditional spacecraft, but with the reaction-mass free consumption of a reaction wheel--and without the reaction wheel's need for periodical purging of momentum.)
Fig.5. The simplest wing space AB-electro-craft. a - site view; b - forward view. Notation: 11 - 18 charged balls; 19 - brackets.
The wing space ship can have the UV laser 2, which ionizes the neutral atoms ahead of ship. That allows the ship to have the lift force, thrust and brake in most areas of interstellar media. The stars having predominant UV light in their emission spectra ionize the interstellar hydrogen at gigantic distances. The requested energy for ionization of hydrogen H equals 13 eV. The energy of relativistic H particles is Mv. It is more profitable to ionize and deflect H from way than spend engine energy for compensation of ship drag.
Theory, computations and estimation of a flight the wing space ship
1. Common relations. The relativistic theory [5] asserts the measurement of time t, speed v and distance S of moving object made a immobile observer (on Earth) and observer located in object (astronaut of space ship) gives the different result. The theory gives the following relations between them
where c = 3?108 m/s is light speed; v is speed of the moving object measured by immobile observer, m/s; ve is speed measured by astronaut by calculation the acceleration and self time, m/s; t is time, sec; s is lenght, m. The subscript `e' means the value is measured by astronaut. The other values are measured by Earth observer. The th, ch, sh are hyperbolic tangent, cosine and sine. Note the speed ve calculated by astronaut may be any, in particular, ve > c. The hyperbolic th x © 1.
The hyperbolic th, ch, sh may be computed throw conventional function ex
For small ve /c <<1 the v - ve , t - te, s - se . The computations of magnitudes (1) presented in fig.7.
Fig.6. Space wing ship having the laser beam ionizer 2 and the electrostatic collector 4. Notations: 1 - space ship; 2 UV laser beam ionizer; 3 - trajectories of positive charged particles; 4 - negative charged thin film ball; 5 - electrostatic deflector of flow; 6 - electrical accelerator (brake).
2. Case of constant acceleration a. In this case the relativistic equations may be integrated and we get the next relations between the time, speed and distance measured by Earth observer and astronaut:
where a = const acceleration of space ship measured by astronaut, m/s2. S is distance, m.
The speed and distance are (in te = t = 0, values v(0) = S(0) = 0):
where
is the rest of the relative mass of ship moved by the photon engine.
Let us consider the hypothetic flight to star system Alfa-Centaur (Alpha Centauri) located at a distance 4.3 light years from Earth with constant Earth acceleration a = 10 m/s. The first half of distance the ship accelerates, the second it brakes. Then the maximum speed of ship will be v/c = 0.95, the astronaut time of flight will be 7.3 years, the Earth time will be 12 years. The radioed (beamed) information sent by astronauts about Alfa-Centaur (Alpha Centauri) will reached the Earth after 4.3 years.
3. Relative consumption of mass by rocket engine is
is relative ship speed;
is relative speed of an exhaust mass (gas, photons, protons) measured by astronaut;
; M0 -initial mass of rocket, kg.
The photon engine having
= 1 spends about 40% of rocket mass for reaching relative speed
= 0.5c = 150 000 km/s.
For v/c << 1 the equation (5) became as the well-known equation
. Computations of the equation (5) are presented in fig.8.
4. The dynamic pressure (drag) of space ship equals
where pe is dynamic pressure, N/m2; ?e is density of space medium, kg/m3 (mass of proton is mp=1,67?10-27 kg). The computation of equation (6) are presented in fig.9.
Fig.9. Dynamic pressure (drag) via relative space ship and media density.
6. Lift force and inductive drag. The space wing shown in fig.1 (when one deflects a flow) produces the drag shown in fig.2c. The value of drag depends from angle of deflected flow. This angle ? and inductive drag Di [N/m2], lift force L [N/m2] approximately equals
where V is vertical (along electric tensile lines) speed in exit of wing, m/s; q is charge of particles, for proton q = 1.6?10-19 C; m is mass of particles, for proton mp = 1,67?10-27 kg; U is change of electric voltage along particle way, V; s - way of particle along electric lines, m; ap - acceleration of particle, m/s2 ; E- energy of particle along electric lines, eV. Conventionally V/c <<1. Acceleration of particle equals ap - qEp/m, where Ep is electric intensity, V/m; L is lift force, N/m2. Lift force, media density and speed v are related to area F of the entrance into biplane wing.
The ratio k = L/D (where L is lift force, D is a full drag) can reach up k - 2/? - 100 (conventional airplane has k about 12¤15). That means using wing space ship for maneuver is more profitable then rocket engine. The computations lift force L of equation (8) via relative ship speed and the media density (number of protons H in 1 cm3) are presented in fig.11.
Fig.11. Relative lift force L [N/m2] of wing ship via relative ship speed v/c and numbers of protons [H/cm3] in space media, ? = 0.1.
Author offers and develops a new wing space relativistic apparatus (space ship). And the propulsion system uses the electric energy. That apparatus allows changing the direction of flight and maneuvering (include orientation) of the space ship without using the rocket engine. He also offers the electrostatic method for decreasing the drag of ship fuselage and collects the charged particles from a huge area. That increases the efficiency of the wing ship and the ramjet relativistic propulsion system by thousands of times.
2. Heppenheimer, T.A. (1978). "On the Infeasibility of Interstellar Ramjets". Journal of the British
Interplanetary Society 31.
4. Bolonkin A.A., Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight, Elsevier, London, 2006.
5. Зингер Е., К механике фотонных ракет, Москва, Издательство ИЛ, 1968. Translation from the
German: Sanger E., Zur mechanik der photonen-stranlantriebe, Verlag Munchen, 1966.
Further reading:
6) "Macro-Projects: Environments and Technologies", by A,Bolonkin, R.Cathcart, NOVA, 2007,
536 pgs. http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057930 .
http://www.archive.org/details/Macro-projectsEnvironmentsAndTechnologies
http://www.scribd.com/doc/32744477 ,
http://www.archive.org/details/NewTechnologiesAndRevolutionaryProjects,
http://technica-molodezhi.ru/docs/Bolonkin/FIL13053195760N960350001/
8) LIFE. SCIENCE. FUTURE (Biography notes, researches and innovations), by A. Bolonkin, Scribd, 2010,
208 pgs. 16 Mb.
http://www.scribd.com/doc/48229884,
http://www.archive.org/details/Life.Science.Future.biographyNotesResearchesAndInnovations
4.8 Mb.
http://www.scribd.com/doc/52969933/
Chapter 5
Wireless Transfer of Electricity from Continent to Continent
Author offers collections from his previous research of the revolutionary new ideas: wireless transferring electric energy in long distance - from one continent to other continent through Earth ionosphere and storage the electric energy into ionosphere. Early he also offered the electronic tubes as the method of transportation of electricity into outer space and the electrostatic space 100 km towers for connection to Earth ionosphere.
Early it is offered connection to Earth ionosphere by 100 km solid or inflatable towers. There are difficult for current technology. In given work the research this connection by thin plastic tubes supported in atmosphere by electron gas and electrostatic force. Building this system is cheap and easy for current technology.
Introduction
The idea of wireless transfer energy through ionosphere was offered and researched by author in [1 - 6]. For connection to Earth ionosphere offered the 100 km solid, inflatable, electrostatic or kinetic towers [7 - 9]. But it is expensive and difficult for current technology.
It is interesting the idea of energy transfer from one Earth continent to another continent without wires. As it is known the resistance of infinity (very large) conducting medium does not depend from distance. That is widely using in communication. The sender and receiver are connected by only one wire, the other wire is Earth. The author offers to use the Earth's ionosphere as the second plasma cable. It is known the Earth has the first ionosphere layer E at altitude about 100 km (Fig. 1). The concentration of electrons in this layer reaches 5в104 1/cm3 in daytime and 3.1в103 1/cm3 at night (Fig. 1). This layer can be used as a conducting medium for transfer electric energy and communication in any point of the Earth. We need minimum two space 100 km. towers (Fig. 2). The cheap optimal inflatable, kinetic, and solid space towers are offered and researched by author in [6-9]. Additional innovations are a large inflatable conducting balloon at the end of the tower and big conducting plates in a sea (ocean) that would dramatically decrease the contact resistance of the electric system and conducting medium.
Electronic tubes
Description, Innovations, and Applications of Electronic tubes.
, (1)
, (2)
, (3)
, (4)
, (5)
Theory and Computation of Electronic Tube
, (6)
, (7)
, (8)
is relative electron friction, N/m2 ; j is current density, A/m2.
, (9)
, (10)
= 0.005. For conventional electric line having cross section copper wire 1 cm2 the relative loss is
= 0.105. That is in 21 times more than the offered electric line. The computation of Equation (10) for atmospheric pressure and for ratio L/U = 1 are presented in fig. 5. As you see for electric line L = 1000 km, voltage U = 1 million V, tube radius r = 2.2 m, the electric current i = 50 A, the relative loss of electric power is one/millionth (10-6), (only 50 W for transmitted power 50 millions watt!). For connection Earth's surface with ionosphere we need only 100 km electronic tube ir 100 km electrostatic tower [6].
, (11)
Fig. 5. Relative electric loss via radius of tube for electric current i = 50 ¤ 1000 A, the atmospheric pressure into tube and ratio L/U = 1.
The theory predicts the tensile stress of different types of nanotubes as: Armchair SWNT - 120 GPa, Zigzag SWNT - 94 GPa.
Specific strength (strength/density) is important in the design of the systems presented in this paper; nanotubes have values at least 2 orders of magnitude greater than steel. Traditional carbon fibers have a specific strength 40 times that of steel. Since nanotubes are made of graphitic carbon, they have good resistance to chemical attack and have high thermal stability. Oxidation studies have shown that the onset of oxidation shifts by about 1000 C or higher in nanotubes compared to high modulus graphite fibers. In a vacuum, or reducing atmosphere, nanotube structures will be stable to any practical service temperature (in vacuum up 2800 oC. in air up 750oC).
Table 1. Material properties
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, (12)
, (13)
, (14)
, (15)
, (16)
, (17)
, (18)
our tube transfer charged matter with very high speed
, (19)
negligibly small mass of the electron gas.
, (20)
The proposed AB-Tube may become what we may term `quasi-superconductive' when magnetic pressure equals electrostatic pressure. In this case electrons cannot contact with the tube wall, do not experience resistance friction and the AB-Tube thus experiences this `quasi-superconductivity'.
Let us to get this condition:
, (21)
Fig. 6. Electron pressure versus electric intensity
Quasi-superconductivity of AB-Tube.
, (22)
, (23)
is the relativistic scaling factor, ? = v/c, v is relative system speed; quantities in analytic formulas are expressed in SI or cgs units, as indicated; in numerical formulas I is in amperes (A), B is in gauss (G, 1 T = 104 G), electron linear density N is in cm-1, temperature, voltage, and energy are in MeV, ?z = vz/c, and k is Boltzmann's constant.
(24)
(25)
. (26)
. (27)
A2. (28)
A. (29)
. (30)
cm is the classical electron radius. Beam electron number density is
cm-3 , (31)
cm-3 (32)
, (33)
A cm-2 (34)
G. (35)
. (36)
Macroprojects
The offered ideas and innovations may create a jump in space and energy industries. Author has made initial base researches that conclusively show the big industrial possibilities offered by the methods and installations proposed.
- -- Transferring electric energy in a long distance (up 10,000 km) with a small electric loss.
- -- `Quasi-superconductivity'. The offered AB-Tube may have a very low electric resistance for any temperature because the electrons in the tube do not have ions and do not lose energy by impacts with ions. The impact the electron to electron does not change the total impulse (momentum) of couple electrons and electron flow. If this idea is proved in experiment, that will be big breakthrough in many fields of technology.
- -- Cheap electric lines suspended in high altitude (because the AB-Tube can have lift force in atmosphere and do not need ground mounted electric masts and other support structures)
- -- The big diameter AB-Tubes (including the electric lines for internal power can be used as tramway for transportation .
- -- AB-Tube s can be used as vacuum tubes for an exit from the Earth's surface to outer space (out from Earth's atmosphere). That may be used by an Earth telescope for observation of sky without atmosphere hindrances, or sending of a plasma beam to space ships without atmosphere hindrances [12-14].
- -- Transfer of electric energy from continent to continent through the Earth's ionosphere [4-5].
- -- Inserting an anti-gravitator cable into a vacuum-enclosing AB-Tube for near-complete elimination of air friction [4-5]. Same application for transmission of mechanical energy for long distances with minimum friction and losses. [4-5].
- -- Increasing in some times the range of a conventional gun. They can shoot through the vacuum tube (up 4-6 km) and projectile will fly in the rare atmosphere where air drag is small.
- -- Transfer of matter a long distance with high speed (including in outer space, see other of author's works).
- -- Interesting uses in nuclear and high energy physics engineering (inventions).
Further research and testing are necessary. As that is in science, the obstacles can slow, even stop, applications of these revolutionary innovations.
Summary
References
(Reader finds some of author's articles in http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm and http://arxiv.org , search "Bolonkin", in books "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier, 2006, 488 pgs; "New concepts, Ideas, and Innovation in Aerospace, Technology and Human Science", NOVA, 2007, 502 pgs.; Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology, NOVA, 2008, 536 pgs.).
- -- Bolonkin, A.A., (1983), Method of stretching of thin film. Russian patent application #3646689/10 138085, 28 September 1983 (in Russian), Russian PTO.
- -- Bolonkin, A.A., Getting of Electric Energy from Space and Installation for It, Russian patent application #3638699/25 126303, 19 August, 1983 (in Russian), Russian PTO.
- -- Bolonkin A.A., Wireless Transfer of Electricity in Outer Space. Presented to http://Arxiv.org on 4 January, 2007. Presented as paper AIAA-2007-0590 to 45th AIAA Aerospace Science Meeting, 8 - 11 January 2007, Reno, Nevada, USA.
- --
Bolonkin A.A., AB Electronic Tubes and Quasi-Superconductivity at Room Temperature.
Presented to http://arxiv.org on 8 April, 2008.
Conference, 18-20 September 2007, Long Beach, CA, USA. http://arxiv.org , search "Bolonkin"
7. Bolonkin A.A., Optimal Solid Space Tower, AIAA-2006-7717. ATIO Conference, 25-27 Sept.
2006, Wichita, Kansas, USA. http://arxiv.org .
8. Bolonkin A.A., Optimal Inflatable Space Tower with 3-100 km Height, Journal of the British
Interplanetary Society, Vol.56, No. 3/4, 2003, pp.97-107.
Congress-2002 10-19 October, Houston, TX, USA. Detail Manuscript was published as
A.A.Bolonkin. "Kunetif Space Towers and Launchers", Journal of the British Interplanetary
Society, Vol.57, No.1/2, 2004. pp.33-39.
for 42 Joint Propulsion Conference, Sacramento, USA, 9-12 July, 2005. Work is published in
International journal AEAT, Vol.78, #6, 2006, pp.502-508.
USA, 2009.
12. Bolonkin A.A., Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight, Elsevier, London, 2006, 488 pgs.
Science", NOVA, 2008, 502 pgs.
14. Bolonkin A.A., Cathcart R.B., "Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology", NOVA,
2009, 500 pgs.
- -- Macro-Engineering - A challenge for the future. Collection of articles. Eds. V. Badescu, R. Cathcart and R. Schuiling, Springer, 2006. See article: "Space Towers" by A.Bolonkin.
- -- Galasso F.S., Advanced Fibers and Composite, Gordon and Branch Science Publisher, 1989.
- -- Kikoin, I.K., (ed.), Tables of physical values. Atomuzdat, Moscow, 1976 (in Russian).
- -- Dresselhous M.S., Carbon Nanotubes, Springer, 2000.
- -- AIP. Physics desk reference, 3-rd Edition, Springer, 2003.
Chapter 6
Transparent Inflatable Blanket for Cities
(for continual pleasant weather and protection from chemical , biological and radioactive weapons)
Abstract
In a series of previous articles (see references) the author offered to cover a city or other important large installations or subregions by a transparent thin film supported by a small additional air overpressure under the form of an AB Dome. That allows keeping the outside atmospheric conditions (for example weather) away from the interior of the inflatable Dome, protecting a city by its' presence from chemical, bacterial, and radioactive weapons and even partially from aviation and nuclear bombs.
The building of a gigantic inflatable AB Dome over an empty flat surface is not difficult. The cover is spread on a flat surface and a ventilator pumps air under the film cover and lifts the new dome into place (inflation takes many hours). However, if we want to cover a city, garden, forest or other obstacle course (as opposed to an empty, mowed field) we cannot easily deploy the thin film over building or trees without risking damage to it by snagging and other complications. In this article is suggested a new method which solves this problem. The idea is to design a double film blanket filled by light gas (for example, methane, hydrogen, or helium - although of these, methane will be the most practical and least leaky). Sections of this AB Blanket are lighter then air and fly in atmosphere. They can be made on a flat area (serving as an assembly area) and delivered by dirigible or helicopter to station at altitude over the city. Here they connect to the already assembled AB Blanket subassemblies, cover the city in an AB Dome and protect it from bad weather, chemical, biological and radioactive fallout or particulates. After finish of dome building the light gas can be changed by air.
Two projects for Manhattan (NY, USA) and Moscow (Russia) are targets for a sample computation.
Introduction
This article suggests a method for covering the city and any surface which is neither flat nor obstruction free by thin film which insulates the city from outer environment, Earth's atmospheric instabilities, cold winter, strong wind, rain, hot weather and so on.
Current rigid structures
In 1800 only 3% of the world's population lived in cities. 47% did by the end of the twentieth century. In 1950, there were 83 cities with populations exceeding one million; but by 2007, this had risen to 468 agglomerations of more than one million. If the trend continues, the world's urban population will double every 38 years, say researchers. The UN forecasts that today's urban population of 3.2 billion will rise to nearly 5 billion by 2030, when three out of five people will live in cities.
The increase will be most dramatic in the poorest and least-urbanised continents, Asia and Africa. Surveys and projections indicate that all urban growth over the next 25 years will be in developing countries. One billion people, one-sixth of the world's population, now live in shanty towns,
By 2030, over 2 billion people in the world will be living in slums. Already over 90% of the urban population of Ethiopia, Malawi and Uganda, three of the world's most rural countries, live in slums.
In 2000, there were 18 megacities - conurbations such as Tokyo, New York City, Los Angeles, Mexico City, Buenos Aires, Mumbai (then Bombay), SЦo Paulo, Karachi that have populations in excess of 10 million inhabitants. Greater Tokyo already has 35 million, which is greater than the entire population of Canada.
By 2025, according to the Far Eastern Economic Review, Asia alone will have at least 10 megacities, including Jakarta, Indonesia (24.9 million people), Dhaka, Bangladesh (26 million), Karachi, Pakistan (26.5 million), Shanghai (27 million) and Mumbai (33 million). Lagos, Nigeria has grown from 300,000 in 1950 to an estimated 15 million today, and the Nigerian government estimates that the city will have expanded to 25 million residents by 2015. Chinese experts forecast that Chinese cities will contain 800 million people by 2020.
In 1950, New York was the only urban area with a population of over 10 million. Geographers have identified 25 such areas as of October 2005, as compared with 19 megacities in 2004 and only nine in 1985. This increase has happened as the world's population moves towards the high (75-85%) urbanization levels of North America and Western Europe. The 1990 census marked the first time the majority of US citizens lived in cities with over 1 million inhabitants.
In the 2000s, the largest megacity is the Greater Tokyo Area. The population of this urban agglomeration includes areas such as Yokohama and Kawasaki, and is estimated to be between 35 and 36 million. This variation in estimates can be accounted for by different definitions of what the area encompasses. While the prefectures of Tokyo, Chiba, Kanagawa, and Saitama are commonly included in statistical information, the Japan Statistics Bureau only includes the area within 50 kilometers of the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Offices in Shinjuku, thus arriving at a smaller population estimate. A characteristic issue of megacities is the difficulty in defining their outer limits and accurately estimating the population.
Project of rigid dome over central part of city.
Description of Innovations
The film (textile) may be conventional (and very cheap) or advanced with realtime controlled clarity for cold and hot regions.
1. Liquid crystals (LC) are substances that exhibit a phase of matter that has properties between those of a conventional liquid, and those of a solid crystal.
3. Electrochromism is the phenomenon displayed by some chemical species of reversibly changing color when a burst of charge is applied.
One good example of an electrochromic material is polyaniline which can be formed either by the electrochemical or chemical oxidation of aniline. If an electrode is immersed in hydrochloric acid which contains a small concentration of aniline, then a film of polyaniline can be grown on the electrode. Depending on the redox state, polyaniline can either be pale yellow or dark green/black. Other electrochromic materials that have found technological application include the viologens and polyoxotungstates. Other electrochromic materials include tungsten oxide (WO3), which is the main chemical used in the production of electrochromic windows or smart windows.
As the color change is persistent and energy need only be applied to effect a change, electrochromic materials are used to control the amount of light and heat allowed to pass through windows ("smart windows"), and has also been applied in the automobile industry to automatically tint rear-view mirrors in various lighting conditions. Viologen is used in conjunction with titanium dioxide (TiO2) in the creation of small digital displays. It is hoped that these will replace LCDs as the viologen (which is typically dark blue) has a high contrast to the bright color of the titanium white, therefore providing a high visibility of the display.
3. THEORY AND COMPUTATIONS OF THE AB BLANKET
- --
Lift force of Blanket. The specific lift force of Blanket is computed by equation:
, (1)
where L is lift force, N; g = 9.81 m/s2 is gravity; qa= 1.225 kg/m3 is an air density for standard condition (T = 15oC); qg < qa is density of lift light gas. For methane qg = 0.72 kg/m3, hydrogen qg = 0.09 kg/m3, helium qg = 0.18 kg/m3; V is volume of Blanket, m3. For example, the section 100в100m of the Blanket filled by methane (the cheapest light gas) having the average thickness 3 m has the lift force 15 N/m2 or 150,000N = 15 tons.
, (2)
, (3)
, (4)
Fig. 4. Wind dynamic pressure versus wind speed and air density ?. The ro = 0.6 is for H - 6 km.
, (5)
(5)'
Fig.5. Spectrum of solar irradiance outside atmosphere and at sea level with absorption of electromagnetic waves by atmospheric gases. Visible light is 0.4 - 0.8 ? (400 - 800 nm).
, (6)
, [W/m2], (7)
, (9)
Fig.6. Maximum Sun radiation flow at Earth surface as function of Earth latitude and season.
, (10)
, (11)
The heat loss flow per 1 m2 of dome film cover by convection and heat conduction is (see [19]):
, (12)
[W/m2K4], (13)
The radiation flow across a set of the heat reflector plates is computed by equation
, (14)
is computed by equation (8) between plate and reflector.
kg/m3 ?, W/m. oC kJ/kg. oC
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Table 3. Average cost of material (2005-2007)
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Table 4. Material properties
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Table 5. Maximum partial pressure of water vapor in atmosphere for given air temperature (pressure is 1 atm)
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, (16)
(17)
(18)
Fig. 9. Amount of water in 1 m3 of air versus air temperature and relative humidity (rh).
t1 = 0 oC.
[W/m2K4], (19)
(20)
Fig. 10. Heating of the dome by solar radiation from the night temperature of 15 o C to 35 o C via daily maximal solar radiation (W/m2) for varying daily time. Height of dome film cover equals H = 135 m. The control temperature system limits the maximum internal dome temperature to 35 o C.
Fig.11. Water vaporization for 100% humidity of the air for different maximal solar radiation (W/m2) levels delivered over varying daily time. Height of dome film cover equals H = 135 m. The temperature control system limits the maximum internal dome temperature to 35 C.
Area (land) of Manhattan is 22.96 sq mi (59.5 km2, A - 60 km2), population 1,620,867 inhabitants, density 70,595/sq mi (27,256.9/km2).
Average annual high temperature is 17C (62F), average annual low temperature is 8C (47F). The average high monthly temperature is 30C (July), the average low monthly temperature is -4C (January). Annual rainfall is 1,124 mm.
Computation and estimation of cost:
Film. Requested area of double film is Af = 3в60 km2 = 180 km2. If thickness of film is ? = 0.1 mm, specific density ? = 1800 kg/m3, the mass of film is M = ??Af = 32,500 tons or m = 0.54 kg/m2. If cost of film is c - $2/kg, the total cost of film is Cf = cM = $65 millions or ca = $1.08/m2.
If average thickness of a gas layer inside the AB-Blanket is ? = 3 m, the total volume of gas is V = ?A =1.8в108 m3. One m3 of methane (CH4) has lift force l = 0.525 kg/m3 or Blanket of thickness ? = 3 m has lift force l = 1.575 kg/m2 or the total Blanket lift force is L = 94.5в103 tons. Cost of methane is c = $0.4/m3, volume is V = ?A =1.8в108 m3. But we did not take in account because after finishing building the AB Dome the methane will be changed for overpressured air. (Thus $72 million in methane would not be kept in inventory, but if the AB-Blankets were each 1% of the final area, neglecting leaks only $720,000 worth of methane would be in play at any one time. With some designs step by step methane replacement with air will be possible (if overpressure support is introduced another way, etc.)
Support cables. Let us take an additional air pressure as p = 0.01 atm = 1000 N/m2, safety tensile stress of artificial fiber ? = 100 kG/mm2, specific density ? = 1800 kg/m3, s = 1 m2, and altitude of the Blanket h = 500 m. Then needed cross-section of cable is 1 mm2 per 1 m2 of Blanket and mass of the support cable is m = ?ph/? = 0.9 kg per 1 m2 of Blanket. If cost of fiber is $1/kg, the cost of support cable is cc = $0.9/m2. Total mass of the support cables is 54,000 tons.
The average cost of air and water tubes and control system we take ct = $0.5/m2.
The total cost of 1 m2 material is C = ca + cc + ct = 1.08 + 0.9 + 0.5 = $2.48/m2 - $2.5/m2 or $150 millions of the USA dollars for Manhattan area. The work will cost about $100 million. The total cost of Blanket construction for Manhattan is about $250 million US dollars.
The clean (rain) water is received from 1 m2 of covered area is 1.1 kL/year. That is enough for the Manhattan population. The possible energy (if we install at extra expense hydro-electric generators and utilize pressure (50 atm) of the rain water) is about 4000 kJ/m2 in year. That covers about 15% of city consumption.
Manhattan receives a permanent warm climate and saves a lot of fuel for home heating (decreased pollution of atmosphere) in winter time and save a lot of electric energy for home cooling in the summer time.
Area (land) of Moscow is 1,081 km« (417.4 sq mi), population (as of the 2002 Census) 10,470,318 inhabitants, density 9,685.8/km« (25,086.1/sq mi).
Average annual high temperature is 9.1C, average annual low temperature is 2.6C. The average high monthly temperature is 24C (July)(Record is 36.5C), the average low monthly temperature is -8C (January)(Record low is -42.2C). Annual rainfall is 705 mm.
DISCUSSION
As with any innovative macro-project proposal, the reader will naturally have many questions. We offer brief answers to the most obvious questions our readers are likely to ponder.
The AB Blanket is temporarily filled by methane gas for air delivery and period of Dome construction. After finish of dome construction the methane will be changed by air and the Blanket will be supported at altitude by small additional air pressure into AB-Dome.
The second reason: the Blanket contains methane in small separated cylindrical sections (in piece 100в100 m has about 30 these sections, see fig.2) and every piece has special anti-fire margins (fig.2). If one cylindrical section will be damaged, the gas flows up (it is lighter then air), burns down only from this section (if film cannot easy burn) and piece get only hole. In any case the special margins do not allow the fire to set fire to next pieces.
(2) Carbonic acid (smoke, CO2) from industry and cars will pollute air into dome.
The smoke from industry can be deleted out from dome by film tubes acting as feedthroughs (chimneys) to the outer air. The cars (exhaust pipes) can be provided by a carbonic acid absorber. The evergreen plants into Dome will intensely absorb CO2 especially if concentration of CO2 will be over the regular values in conventional atmosphere (but safe for people). We can also periodically ventilate the Dome in good weather by open the special windows in Dome (see fig.1) and turn on the ventilators like we ventilate the apartment. We can install heat exchangers and permanently change the air in the dome (periodically wise to do anyway because of trace contaminant buildups).
(3) How can snow be removed from Dome cover?
We can pump a warm air between the Blanket layers and melt show and pass the water by rain tubes. We can drop the snow by opening the Blanket windows (fig.2d).
Conclusion
The building of gigantic inflatable AB-Dome over an empty flat surface is not difficult. The cover spreads on said flat surface and a ventilator pumps air under the cover (the edges being joined and secured gas-tight) and the overpressure, over many hours, lifts the dome. However, if we want to cover a city, garden, forest we cannot easily spread the thin film over building or trees. In given article is suggested a new method which solves this problem. Idea is in design the double film Blanket filled by light gas (methane, hydrogen, helium). Subassemblies of the AB Dome, known as AB Blankets, are lighter then air and fly in atmosphere. They can be made on a flat area and delivered by dirigible or helicopter to the sky over the city. Here they are connected to the AB Dome under construction, cover the city and protect it from bad weather, chemical, biological and radioactive weapons and particulate falls. After finish of building the light gas can be changed by air.
References
(The reader may find some of these articles at the author's web page: http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm, http://arxiv.org , search term "Bolonkin", in the book "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier, London, 2006, 488 pgs., in book "New Concepts, Ideas, Innovations in Aerospace, Technology and Human Science", NOVA, 2007, 502 pgs., and in book "Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology", NOVA, 2008, 500 pgs.)
Waves, Tsunamis, and Other Weather-Related Floods, 2006. http://arxiv.org.
Atmosphere and Change of Country Climate http://arxiv.org, 2007.
Interplanetary Society Vol. 56, pp. 87 - 97, 2003.
- -- Bolonkin A.A., Cheap Method of City Protection from Rockets and Nuclear Warheads. http://arxiv.org search "Bolonkin". 2007.
- -- Bolonkin A.A., Cheap Artificial AB-Mountains, Extraction of Water and Energy from Atmosphere and Change of Regional Climate. Presented to http://arxiv.org in 2007 search "Bolonkin".
- -- Gleick, Peter; et al. (1996). Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather. Oxford University Press.
Current air support structures
Inside of inflatable structure. New technologies allowed the Generations Sports Complex to cover an area 2 football fields in length by almost a football field wide without support columns to get in the way
Inside of inflatable structure
Current big Inflatable structures
Current middle inflatable dome
Small inflatable structure
Artificial beach
Chapter 7
Live of Humanity in Outer Space without Space Suite
Abstract
The author proposes and investigates his old idea - a living human in space without the encumbrance of a complex space suit. Only in this condition can biological humanity seriously attempt to colonize space because all planets of Solar system (except the Earth) do not have suitable atmospheres. Aside from the issue of temperature, a suitable partial pressure of oxygen is lacking. In this case the main problem is how to satiate human blood with oxygen and delete carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide). The proposed system would enable a person to function in outer space without a space suit and, for a long time, without food. That is useful also in the Earth for sustaining working men in an otherwise deadly atmosphere laden with lethal particulates (in case of nuclear, chemical or biological war), in underground confined spaces without fresh air, under water or a top high mountains above a height that can sustain respiration.
Short history. A fictional treatment of Man in space without spacesuit protection was famously treated by Arthur C. Clarke in at least two of his works, "Earthlight" and the more famous "2001: A Space Odyssey". In the scientific literature, the idea of sojourning in space without complex space suits was considered seriously about 1970 and an initial research was published in [1] p.335 - 336. Here is more detail research this possibility.
Humans and vacuum. Vacuum is primarily an asphyxiant. Humans exposed to vacuum will lose consciousness after a few seconds and die within minutes, but the symptoms are not nearly as graphic as commonly shown in pop culture. Robert Boyle was the first to show that vacuum is lethal to small animals. Blood and other body fluids do boil (the medical term for this condition is ebullism), and the vapour pressure may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Ebullism is slowed by the pressure containment of blood vessels, so some blood remains liquid. Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in a flight suit. Shuttle astronauts wear a fitted elastic garment called the Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS) which prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 15 Torr (2 kPa). However, even if ebullism is prevented, simple evaporation of blood can cause decompression sickness and gas embolisms. Rapid evaporative cooling of the skin will create frost, particularly in the mouth, but this is not a significant hazard.
Animal experiments show that rapid and complete recovery is the norm for exposures of fewer than 90 seconds, while longer full-body exposures are fatal and resuscitation has never been successful.[4] There is only a limited amount of data available from human accidents, but it is consistent with animal data. Limbs may be exposed for much longer if breathing is not impaired. Rapid decompression can be much more dangerous than vacuum exposure itself. If the victim holds his breath during decompression, the delicate internal structures of the lungs can be ruptured, causing death. Eardrums may be ruptured by rapid decompression, soft tissues may bruise and seep blood, and the stress of shock will accelerate oxygen consumption leading to asphyxiation.
In 1942, the Nazi regime tortured Dachau concentration camp prisoners by exposing them to vacuum. This was an experiment for the benefit of the German Air Force (Luftwaffe), to determine the human body's capacity to survive high altitude conditions.
Some extremophile microrganisms, such as Tardigrades, can survive vacuum for a period of years.
In unicellular organisms, simple diffusion is sufficient for gas exchange: every cell is constantly bathed in the external environment, with only a short distance for gases to flow across. In contrast, complex multicellular organisms such as humans have a much greater distance between the environment and their innermost cells, thus, a respiratory system is needed for effective gas exchange. The respiratory system works in concert with a circulatory system to carry gases to and from the tissues.
In air-breathing vertebrates such as humans, respiration of oxygen includes four stages:
Respiratory physiology is the branch of human physiology concerned with respiration.
Virtually all the body's blood travels through the lungs every minute. The lungs add and remove many chemical messengers from the blood as it flows through pulmonary capillary bed. The fine capillaries also trap blood clots that have formed in systemic veins.
Gas exchange. The major function of the respiratory system is gas exchange. As gas exchange occurs, the acid-base balance of the body is maintained as part of homeostasis. If proper ventilation is not maintained, two opposing conditions could occur: 1) respiratory acidosis, a life threatening condition, and 2) respiratory alkalosis.
Upon inhalation, gas exchange occurs at the alveoli, the tiny sacs which are the basic functional component of the lungs. The alveolar walls are extremely thin (approx. 0.2 micrometres), and are permeable to gases. The alveoli are lined with pulmonary capillaries, the walls of which are also thin enough to permit gas exchange.
The introduction of microporous hollow fibres with very low resistance to mass transfer revolutionised design of membrane modules, as the limiting factor to oxygenator performance became the blood resistance [Gaylor, 1988]. Current designs of oxygenator typically use an extraluminal flow regime, where the blood flows outside the gas filled hollow fibres, for short term life support, while only the homogeneous membranes are approved for long term use.
Some of these requirements also apply to pressure suits worn for other specialized tasks, such as high-altitude reconnaissance flight. Above Armstrong's Line (~63,000 ft/~19,000 m), pressurized suits are needed in the sparse atmosphere. Hazmat suits that superficially resemble space suits are sometimes used when dealing with biological hazards.
A conventional space suit must perform several functions to allow its occupant to work safely and comfortably. It must provide: A stable internal pressure, Mobility, Breathable oxygen, Temperature regulation, Means to recharge and discharge gases and liquids , Means of collecting and containing solid and liquid waste, Means to maneuver, dock, release, and/or tether onto spacecraft.
Fig. 1. a. Apollo 11 A7L space suit. b. Diagram showing component parts of A7L space suit.
Brief Description of Innovation
Fig.2. Principal sketch of heart-Lung Machine
Fig.3. Principal sketch of oxygenator.
Fig. 4. Oxygenators
Fig.5. The human circulatory system. Red indicates oxygenated blood, blue indicates deoxygenated.
Two types of fluids move through the circulatory system: blood and lymph. The blood, heart, and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system. The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels form the lymphatic system. The cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system collectively make up the circulatory system.
The simplest form of intravenous access is a syringe with an attached hollow needle. The needle is inserted through the skin into a vein, and the contents of the syringe are injected through the needle into the bloodstream. This is most easily done with an arm vein, especially one of the metacarpal veins. Usually it is necessary to use a constricting band first to make the vein bulge; once the needle is in place, it is common to draw back slightly on the syringe to aspirate blood, thus verifying that the needle is really in a vein; then the constricting band is removed before injecting.
When man does not use the outer air pressure in conventional space suite, he not has opposed internal pressure except the heart small pressure in blood. The skin vapor easy stop by film clothes or make small by conventional clothes.
The current lung devices must be re-designed for space application. These must be small, light, cheap, easy in application (using hollow needles, no operation (surgery)!), work a long time in field conditions. Wide-ranging space colonization by biological humanity is impossible without them.
Application of offered devices gives humanity a unique possibility to be a long time without conventional nutrition. Many will ask, "who would want to live like that?" But in fact many crew members, military, and other pressured personnel routinely cut short what most would consider normal dining routines. And there are those morbidly obese people for whom dieting is difficult exactly because (in an unfortunate phrase!) many can give up smoking `cold turkey', but few can give up `eating cold turkey'! Properly `fed' intravenously, a person could lose any amount of excess weight he needed to, while not suffering hunger pains or the problems the conventional eating cycle causes. It is known that people in a coma may exist some years in artificial nutrition inserted into blood. Let us consider the current state of the art.
Total parenteral nutrition (TPN), also referred to as Parenteral nutrition (PN), is provided when the gastrointestinal tract is nonfunctional because of an interruption in its continuity or because its absorptive capacity is impaired. It has been used for comatose patients, although enteral feeding is usually preferable, and less prone to complications. Short-term TPN may be used if a person's digestive system has shut down (for instance by Peritonitis), and they are at a low enough weight to cause concerns about nutrition during an extended hospital stay. Long-term TPN is occasionally used to treat people suffering the extended consequences of an accident or surgery. Most controversially, TPN has extended the life of a small number of children born with nonexistent or severely deformed guts. The oldest were eight years old in 2003.
Chronic TPN is performed through a central intravenous catheter, usually in the subclavian or jugular vein. Another common practice is to use a PICC line, which originates in the arm, and extends to one of the central veins, such as the subclavian. In infants, sometimes the umbilical vein is used.
Battery-powered ambulatory infusion pumps can be used with chronic TPN patients. Usually the pump and a small (100 ml) bag of nutrient (to keep the vein open) are carried in a small bag around the waist or on the shoulder. Outpatient TPN practices are still being refined.
Aside from their dependence on a pump, chronic TPN patients live quite normal lives.
Central IV lines flow through a catheter with its tip within a large vein, usually the superior vena cava or inferior vena cava, or within the right atrium of the heart.
There are several types of catheters that take a more direct route into central veins. These are collectively called central venous lines.
In the simplest type of central venous access, a catheter is inserted into a subclavian, internal jugular, or (less commonly) a femoral vein and advanced toward the heart until it reaches the superior vena cava or right atrium. Because all of these veins are larger than peripheral veins, central lines can deliver a higher volume of fluid and can have multiple lumens.
Another type of central line, called a Hickman line or Broviac catheter, is inserted into the target vein and then "tunneled" under the skin to emerge a short distance away. This reduces the risk of infection, since bacteria from the skin surface are not able to travel directly into the vein; these catheters are also made of materials that resist infection and clotting.
Testing
- -- Using a hollow needle, the main blood system of a good healthy animal connects to a current heart-lung machine.
- -- The animal is inserted under a transparent dome and air is gradually changed to a neutral gas (for example, nitrogen). If all signs are OK, we may proceed to the following stage some days later.
- --
The animal is inserted under a transparent dome and air is slowly (tens of minutes) pumped out.
If all signs are OK we may start the following stage. - -- Investigate how long time the animal can be in vacuum? How quick we can decompress and compress? How long the animal may live on artificial nutrition? And so on.
- -- Design the lung (oxygenator) devices for people which will be small, light, cheap, reliable, safe, which delete gases from blood (especially those that will cause `bends' in the case of rapid decompression, and work on decreasing the decompressing time).
- -- Testing the new devices on animals then human volunteers.
- -- The lung (oxygenator) devices are small, light, cheaper by tens to hundreds times than the current space suit.
- -- It does not limit the activity of a working man.
- -- The working time increases by some times. (less heat buildup, more supplies per a given carry weight, etc)
- -- It may be widely used in the Earth for existing in poison atmospheres (industry, war), fire, rescue operation, under water, etc.
- -- Method allows permanently testing (controlling) the blood and immediately to clean it from any poison and gases, wastes, and so on. That may save human lives in critical medical situations and in fact it may become standard emergency equipment.
- -- For quick save the human life.
- -- Pilots for high altitude flights.
- -- The offered system is a perfect rescue system because you turn off from environment and exist INDEPENDENTLY from the environment. (Obviously excluding outside thermal effects, fires etc--but for example, many fire deaths are really smoke inhalation deaths; the bodies are often not burned to any extent. In any case it is much easier to shield searing air from the lungs if you are not breathing it in!)
REFERENCES
(The reader may find some of these articles at the author's web page http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm and in this book "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier, London, 2006, 488 pages and in his book "New Concepts, Ideas, Innovations in Aerospace, Technology and Human Science", NOVA, 2007, 502 pages and in book "Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology", NOVA, 2008, 536 pgs.)
7. Bolonkin, A.A., Cheap artificial AB-Mountains, Extraction of Water and Energy from Atmosphere and Change of
15. Wikipedia. Some background material in this article is gathered from Wikipedia under the Creative Commons license.
Chapter 8
Magnetic Space Launcher*
Abstract
A method and facilities for delivering payload and people into outer space are presented. This method uses, in general, engines located on a planetary surface. The installation consists of a space apparatus, power drive stations, which include a flywheel accumulator (for storage) of energy, a variable reducer, a powerful homopolar electric generator and electric rails. The drive stations accelerate the apparatus up to hypersonic speed.
1. Introduction
At present, rockets are used to carry people and payloads into space, or to deliver bombs over long distances. This method is very expensive, and requires a well-developed industry, high technology, expensive fuel, and complex devices.
The space elevator requires very strong nanotubes, as well as rockets and high technology for the initial development. The tube air rocket and non-rocket systems require more detailed research. The electromagnetic transport system, suggested by Minovich (US Patent, 4,795,113, 3 January, 1989)[11], is not realistic at the present time. It requires a vacuum underground tunnel 1530 kilometers long located at a depth of 40 kilometers. The project requires a power cooling system (because the temperature is very high at this depth), a complex power electromagnetic system, and a huge impulse of energy that is greater than the energy of all the electric generating stations on Earth.
This article suggests a very simple and inexpensive method and installation for launching into space.
General information about previous works regarding to our topic.
Below is common information useful for understanding proposed ideas and research.
A rocket is a vehicle, missile or aircraft which obtains thrust by the reaction to the ejection of fast moving fluid from within a rocket engine. Chemical rockets operate due to hot exhaust gas made from "propellant" acting against the inside of an expansion nozzle. This generates forces that both accelerate the gas to extremely high speed, as well as, since every action has an equal and opposite reaction, generating a large thrust on the rocket.
Rockets are used for fireworks and weaponry, as launch vehicles for artificial satellites, human spaceflight and exploration of other planets. While they are inefficient for low speed use, they are, compared to other propulsion systems, very lightweight, enormously powerful and can achieve extremely high speeds.
Chemical rockets contain a large amount of energy in an easily liberated form, and can be very dangerous, although careful design, testing, construction and use can minimise the risks.
A rocket engine is a jet engine that takes all its reaction mass ("propellant") from within tankage and forms it into a high speed jet, thereby obtaining thrust in accordance with Newton's third law. Rocket engines can be used for spacecraft propulsion as well as terrestrial uses, such as missiles. Most rocket engines are internal combustion engines, although non combusting forms also exist.
A wire carrying an electrical current, when in a magnetic field, experiences a force perpendicular to the direction of the current and the direction of the magnetic field.
In an electric motor, fixed magnets create a magnetic field, and a coil of wire is carried upon a shaft that is free to rotate. An electrical current flows through the coil causing it to experience a force due to the magnetic field. The wires of the coil are arranged such that all the forces on the wires make the shaft rotate, and so the motor runs.
Fig.1. Schematic diagrams of a railgun.
A railgun consists of two parallel metal rails (hence the name) connected to an electrical power supply. When a conductive projectile is inserted between the rails (from the end connected to the power supply), it completes the circuit. Electrical current runs from the positive terminal of the power supply up the positive rail, across the projectile, and down the negative rail, back to the power supply (Fig.1).
This flow of current makes the railgun act like an electromagnet, creating a powerful magnetic field in the region of the rails up to the position of the projectile. In accordance with the right-hand rule, the created magnetic field circulates around each conductor. Since the current flows in opposite direction along each rail, the net magnetic field between the rails (B) is directed vertically. In combination with the current (I) flowing across the projectile, this produces a Lorentz force which accelerates the projectile along the rails. The projectile slides up the rails away from the end with the power supply.
If a very large power supply providing a million amperes or so of current is used, then the force on the projectile will be tremendous, and by the time it leaves the ends of the rails it can be travelling at many kilometres per second. 20 kilometers per second has been achieved with small projectiles explosively injected into the railgun. Although these speeds are theoretically possible, the heat generated from the propulsion of the object is enough to rapidly erode the rails. Such a railgun would require frequent replacement of the rails, or use a heat resistant material that would be conductive enough to produce the same effect.
The need for strong conductive materials with which to build the rails and projectiles; the rails need to survive the violence of an accelerating projectile, and heating due to the large currents and friction involved act against the longevity of the system. The force exerted on the rails consists of a recoil force - equal and opposite to the force propelling the projectile, but along the length of the rails (which is their strongest axis) - and a sideways force caused by the rails being pushed by the magnetic field, just as the projectile is. The rails need to survive this without bending, and thus must be very securely mounted.
The power supply must be able to deliver large currents, with both capacitors and compulsators being common.
The rails need to withstand enormous repulsive forces during firing, and these forces will tend to push them apart and away from the projectile. As rail/projectile clearances increase, electrical arcing develops, which causes rapid vaporization and extensive damage to the rail surfaces and the insulator surfaces. This limits most research railguns to one shot per service interval.
Some have speculated that there are fundamental limits to the exit velocity due to the inductance of the system, and particularly of the rails; but United States government has made significant progress in railgun design and has recently floated designs of a railgun that would be used on a naval vessel. The designs for the naval vessels, however, are limited by their required power usages for the magnets in the rail guns. This level of power is currently unattainable on a ship and reduces the usefulness of the concept for military purposes.
Massive amounts of heat are created by the electricity flowing through the rails, as well as the friction of the projectile leaving the device. This leads to three main problems: melting of equipment, safety of personnel, and detection by enemy forces. As briefly discussed above, the stresses involved in firing this sort of device require an extremely heat-resistant material. Otherwise the rails, barrel, and all equipment attached would melt or be irreparably damaged. Current railguns are not sufficiently powerful to create enough heat to damage anything; however the military is pushing for more and more powerful prototypes. The immense heat released in firing a railgun could potentially injure or even kill bystanders. The heat released would not only be dangerous, but easily detectable. While not visible to the naked eye, the heat signature would be unmistakable to infrared detectors. All of these problems can be solved by the invention of an effective cooling method.
Railguns are being pursued as weapons with projectiles that do not contain explosives, but are given extremely high velocities: 3500 m/s (11,500 ft/s) or more (for comparison, the M16 rifle has a muzzle speed of 930 m/s, or 3,000 ft/s), which would make their kinetic energy equal or superior to the energy yield of an explosive-filled shell of greater mass. This would allow more ammunition to be carried and eliminate the hazards of carrying explosives in a tank or naval weapons platform. Also, by firing at higher velocities railguns have greater range, less bullet drop and less wind drift, bypassing the inherent cost and physical limitations of conventional firearms - "the limits of gas expansion prohibit launching an unassisted projectile to velocities greater than about 1.5 km/s and ranges of more than 50 miles [80 km] from a practical conventional gun system."
If it is even possible to apply the technology as a rapid-fire automatic weapon, a railgun would have further advantages in increased rate of fire. The feed mechanisms of a conventional firearm must move to accommodate the propellant charge as well as the ammunition round, while a railgun would only need to accommodate the projectile. Furthermore, a railgun would not have to extract a spent cartridge case from the breech, meaning that a fresh round could be cycled almost immediately after the previous round has been shot.
Tests of Railgun. Full-scale models have been built and fired, including a very successful 90 mm bore, 9 MJ (6.6 million foot-pounds) kinetic energy gun developed by DARPA, but they all suffer from extreme rail damage and need to be serviced after every shot. Rail and insulator ablation issues still need to be addressed before railguns can start to replace conventional weapons. Probably the most successful system was built by the UK's Defence Research Agency at Dundrennan Range in Kirkcudbright, Scotland. This system has now been operational for over 10 years at an associated flight range for internal, intermediate, external and terminal ballistics, and is the holder of several mass and velocity records.
The United States military is funding railgun experiments. At the University of Texas at Austin Institute for Advanced Technology, military railguns capable of delivering tungsten armor piercing bullets with kinetic energies of nine million joules have been developed. Nine mega-joules is enough energy to deliver 2 kg of projectile at 3 km/s - at that velocity a tungsten or other dense metal rod could penetrate a tank.
The United States Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division demonstrated an 8 mega-joule rail gun firing 3.2 kilogram (slightly more than 7 pounds) projectiles in October of 2006 as a prototype of a 64 mega-joule weapon to be deployed aboard Navy warships. Such weapons are expected to be powerful enough to do a little more damage than a BGM-109 Tomahawk missile at a fraction of the projectile cost.
Due to the very high muzzle velocity that can be attained with railguns, there is interest in using them to shoot down high-speed missiles.
A homopolar generator is a DC electrical generator that is made when a magnetic electrically conductive rotating disk has a different magnetic field passing through it (it can be thought of as slicing through the magnetic field). This creates a voltage and current difference between 2 contact points, one in the center of the disk the other on the outside of the disk. For simplicity one contact point can be considered positive +, and the other contact point can be considered ground or negative (- or 0). In general the 2 contact points are linked together as the armature. It has the same polarity at every point, so that the armature that passes through the magnetic field lines of force continually move in the same direction. The device is electrically symmetrical (bidirectional), and generates continuous direct current. It is also known as a unipolar generator, acyclic generator, disk dynamo, or Faraday disk (Fig.2). Relatively speaking they can source tremendous electric current (10 to 10000 amperes) but at low potential differences (typically 0.5 to 3 volts). This property is due to the fact that the homopolar generator has very low internal resistance.
The device consists of a conducting flywheel rotating in a magnetic field with one electrical contact near the axis and the other near the periphery. It has been used for generating very high currents at low voltages in applications such as welding, electrolysis and railgun research. In pulsed energy applications, the angular momentum of the rotor is used to store energy over a long period and then release it in a short time.
Fig.2. Basic Faraday disc generator
Magnets.
Neodymium magnets are very strong relative to their mass, but are also mechanically fragile. High-temperature grades will operate at up to 200 and even 230®C but their strength is only marginally greater than that of a samarium-cobalt magnet. As of 2008 neodymium magnets cost about $44/kg, $1.40 per BHmax.
Most neodymium magnets are anisotropic, and hence can only be magnetised along one direction although B10N material is isotropic. During manufacture fields of 30-40 kOe are required to saturate the material. Neodymium magnets have a coercivity (required demagnetisation field from saturation) of about 10,000-12,000 Oersted. Neodymium magnets (or "neo" as they are known in the industry) are graded in strength from N24 to the strongest, N55. The theoretical limit for neodymium magnets is grade N64. The number after the N represents the magnetic energy product, in megagauss-oersteds (MGOe) (1 MG"Oe = 7,958"10Ё T"A/m = 7,958 kJ/mЁ). N48 has a remnant static magnetic field of 1.38 teslas and an H (magnetic field intensity) of 13,800 Oersteds (1.098 MA/m). By volume one requires about 18 times as much ceramic magnetic material for the equivalent magnet lifting strength, and about 3 to 5 times as much for the equivalent dipole moment. A neodymium magnet can hold up to 1300 times its own weight.
The neodymium magnet industry is continually working to push the maximum energy product (strength) closer to the theoretical maximum of 64 MGOe. Scientists are also working hard to improve the maximum operating temperature for any given strength.
Physical and mechanical properties: Electrical resistivity 160 Ѕ-ohm-cm/cm2; Density 7.4-7.5 g/cm3; Bending strength 24 kg/mm2; Compressive strength 80 kg/mm2; Young's modulus 1.7 x 104 kg/mm2; Thermal conductivity 7.7 kcal/m-h-®C; Vickers hardness 500 - 600.
Samarium-cobalt magnets are primarily composed of samarium and cobalt. They have been available since the early 1970s. This type of rare-earth magnet is very powerful, however they are brittle and prone to cracking and chipping. Samarium-cobalt magnets have Maximum Energy Products (BHmax) that range from 16 Mega-Gauss Oersteds (MGOe) to 32 MGOe, their theoretical limit is 34 MGOe. Samarium Cobalt magnets are available in two "series", namely Series 1:5 and Series 2:17.
Material properties: Density: 8.4 g/cmЁ ; Electrical Resistivity 0.8в10--4 ?"cm; Coefficient of thermal expansion (perpendicular to axis): 12.5 Ѕm/(m"K) .
Alnico is an acronym referring to alloys which are composed primarily of aluminium (symbol Al), nickel (symbol Ni) and cobalt (symbol Co), hence al-ni-co, with the addition of iron, copper, and sometimes titanium, typically 8-12% Al, 15-26% Ni, 5-24% Co, up to 6% Cu, up to 1% Ti, and the balance is Fe. The primary use of alnico alloys is magnet applications.
Alnico remanence (Br) may exceed 12,000 G (1.2 T), its coercion force (Hc) can be up to 1000 oersted (80 kA/m), its energy product ((BH)max) can be up to 5.5 MG"Oe (44 T"A/m)--this means alnico can produce high magnetic flux in closed magnetic circuit, but has relatively small resistance against demagnetization.
As of 2008, Alnico magnets cost about $20/pound or $4.30/BHmax.
2. Description of Suggested Launcher
The current condensers have a small electric capacity 0.002 MJ/kg ([2], p.465). We would need about 1010 J energy and 5000 tons of these expensive condensers. The fly-wheels made of cheap artificial fiber have capacity about 0.5 MJ/kg ([2], p.464). The need mass of fly-wheel is decreased to a relatively small 25 - 30 tons. The unit mass of a fly-wheel is significantly cheaper then unit mass of the electric condenser.
The offered design of the magnetic launcher has many innovations which help to overcome the obstacles afforded by a conventional railgun. Itemizing some of them:
1. Fly-wheels from artificial fiber.
2. Small variable reducer with smooth change of turns and high variable rate.
3. Multi-stage monopolar electric generator having capacity of producing millions of amperes and
a variable high voltage during a short time.
4. Sliding mercury (gallium) contact having high pass capacity.
5. Double switch having high capacity and short time switching.
6. Special design of projectile (conductor ring) having permanent contact with electric rail.
rail.
8. Homopolar generator has magnets inserted into a disk (wheel) form. That significantly simplifies
the electric generator.
9. The rails and electric generator can have internal water-cooling.
10. The generator can return rotation energy back to a flywheel after shooting, while rails can
return the electromagnetic energy to installation. That way a part of shot energy may be returned.
This increases the coefficient of efficiency of the launch installation.
Fig.5. Variable reducer. (a) Start position; (b) final position. Notations: 1 - shift of electric generator; 2 - shift of fly-wheel; 3 - tape (inertial transfer roll).
Theory and computations. Project.
Below is advanced theory of the magnetic launcher and a computation of a sample project.
Let us take the mass of a space apparatus payload m = 150 kg, speed after gas gun Vo = 1500 m/s and final speed V = 8000 m/s.
. (1)
Let us take this acceleration as constant value for main rail magnet acceleration. Then time t, length L of magnetic acceleration, force F, and energy A are
. (2)
2. Requested electric current and maximal opposed electric intensity from space ship acceleration.
Let us take the distance between rail d = 0.2m and semi-thickness of rail a1 = 0.05m.
The request electric currency i and maximum opposed electric intension Em are
, (3)
where ?o = 4?в10-7 - magnet constant.
3. Resistance of electric rails. Let us consider a copper rail with safety limit of temperature increase ?T = 200K. The copper has electric resistance ? =1.7в10-8 ?.m specific density ? = 8430 kg/m3, heat capacity cp = 90 J/kg.K. From the equation of heat balance we have need of the cross-section area s of rail:
. (4)
where r is electric resistance, Ohm; Ur maximal electric intensity from Ohm resistance of rails, V.
, (5)
5. Rotor of the electric generator. Radius of rotor the n (n = 20) studies electric generator R for magnetic intensity B = 1.2 T, and maximal the rotary speed Vr = 600 m/s is
. (6)
If one disk of rotor has mass of 200 kg, the total mass of rotor will be mr = 200в20 = 4000 kg.
6. Fly-wheel. Assume the fly-wheel made from artificial fiber having a safe tensile stress
? = 100 kg/mm2 = 109 N/m2, specific density ? = 2000 kg/m3 . Then a safe rotary speed
Vf = (?/?)0.5 = 710 m/s and mass M of fly-wheel is
. (7)
electric generator to the rail. The maximal number of angular velocity is ? = Vf/R = 229 radian/s = 36.5 revolution/s.
7. Coefficient efficiency of rails is ?1 =Em/Um = 0.79.
8. Inductance Li and energy W of a rail magnetic field are
. (8)
9. Maximal repulsion force of rails is
. (9)
This will merit your attention - this force is high and rails need in strong connection.
10. Loss of launched apparatus speed in Earth's atmosphere is about 100 m/s (see [1], pp.48-39,
11. Additional required fuel mass to achieve delta-v at top of the trajectory (Fig.3) for
If rail angle is ? = 35o degrees, the request orbit altitude is H = 4000 km and a solid rocket
apparatus engine has impulse w = 2000 m/s, then request relative fuel mass is 0.2 (see [1],
pp. 136-137).
If ? = 40 - 45o, H = 400 km, w = 2280 - 3410 m/s the request relative fuel is about 0.1.
This means: from total mass of apparatus m = 150 kg the payload may be 100 -- 115 kg, the
fuel 15 - 30 kg and the projectile body 15 - 35 kg.
12. Cost of launch one kg of payload. Assume the conventional turbo engine is used for moving
the fly-wheel. Let us take the coefficient of efficiency the engine ?1 = 0.3 and the coefficient of
efficiency of our launcher ?2 = 0.6 . Then the requested amount of a fuel (gas, benzene) for one
launch is
, (10)
where A = 4.71в109 J is energy (see (5)), q = 42в106 J/kg is heat capacity of fuel.
If cost of fuel is c = $0.5/kg (end of 2008) and payload is 100 kg, the fuel cost per one kg is
. (11)
That is power of a middle aviation turbo engine.
Let us assume the cost of magnetic launcher is 50 millions of dollars, lifetime of installation is 10 year and mountain is $2 millions of dollars per year. The launcher works the 350 days and launches 100 kg payload every 30 min (This means about 5000kg/day and 1750 tons/year). Then additional cost from installation is Ci = $2.86/kg and total cost is
C = Cf + Ci - $6/kg. (12)
Compare this to the current cost of launching 1 kg of payload from $2500- $50000.
Conclusion
and may be used only for unmanned, hardened payload. If we want design the manned launcher the rail way must be 1100 km for acceleration a = 3g (untrained passengers) and about 500 km (a = 6g) for trained cosmonauts.
Our design is not optimal. For example, the computation shows, if we increase our rail track only by 15 m, we do not need gas gun initial acceleration. That significantly decreases the cost of installation and simplifies its construction.
The reader can recalculate the installation for his own scenarios.
(The reader may find some of these articles, in the WEB of Cornel University http://arxiv.org , search term "Bolonkin" and at the author's web page: http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm)
2. Bolonkin A.A., New Concepts, Ideas and Innovations in Aerospace, Technology and Human
Sciences, NOVA, 2008, 502 pgs.
3. Bolonkin A.A., Cathcart R.B., Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology, NOVA, 2008,
537 pgs.
4. A. Bolonkin, M. Krinker., Magnetic Propeller for Uniform Magnetic Field Levitation
http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/0807/0807.1948.pdf (12 July, 2008).
44th Joint Propulsion Conference, 20-24 July, 2008, Hartford, CT,
(Ch.13 . in the book "Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology", NOVA, 2009)
pp. 394-404.
8. A.A. Bolonkin, "Space Cable Launchers", Paper No. 8057 presented at the Symposium
"The Next 100 years", Dayton, OH, USA, 14-17 July, 2003.
9. A.A. Bolonkin, Centrifugal Space Launcher, Presented as paper AIAA-2005-4035 at the
41st Propulsion Conference, 10-12 July 2005, Tueson, AZ, USA.
10. A.A. Bolonkin, Electrostatic Linear Engine and Cable Space AB Launcher,
Paper AIAA-2006-5229 for 42 Joint Propulsion Conference, Secramento, USA, 9-12 July,
2006. See also AEAT Vol.78, No.2006, pp. 502-508.
#4,795,113, January 3 1989.
13. Wikipedia. Some background material in this article is gathered from Wikipedia under the
Creative Commons license. http://wikipedia.org .
Chapter 9
Lower Current and Plasma Magnetic Railguns
Abstract
It is well-known that the magnetic railgun theoretically allows a very high `exhaust velocity' of projectile. The USA and England have tried to research and develop working railgun installations. However the researchers had considerable problems in testing. The railgun requests very high (millions of amperes,) electric current (but low voltage). As result the rails and contacts burn and melt. The railgun can make only ONE shot between repairs, cannot shoot a big and high speed projectile, and has low efficiency.
Important advantages of the offered design are the lower (up to some tens of times) usage of electric current of high voltage and a very high efficiency coefficient closeto 95% (compare with efficiency of the current railgun which equals 20 - 40%). The suggested accelerators may be produced by present technology.
--------
1. Introduction
At present, rockets are used to carry people and payloads into space, or to deliver bombs over long distances. This method is very expensive, and requires a well-developed industry, high technology, expensive fuel, and complex devices.
The space elevator requires very strong nanotubes, as well as rockets and high technology for the initial development. The tube air rocket and non-rocket systems require more detailed research. The electromagnetic transport system, suggested by Minovich (US Patent, 4,795,113, 3 January, 1989)[20], is not realistic at the present time. It requires a vacuum underground tunnel 1530 kilometers long located at a depth of 40 kilometers. The project requires an active cooling system (because the temperature is very high at this depth), a complex power electromagnetic system, and a huge impulse of energy that is greater than the energy of all the electric generating stations on Earth.
This article suggests a very simple and inexpensive methods and installations for launching into space.
A wire carrying an electrical current, when in a magnetic field, experiences a force perpendicular to the direction of the current and the direction of the magnetic field.
A railgun consists of two parallel metal rails (hence the name) connected to an electrical power supply. When a conductive projectile is inserted between the rails (from the end connected to the power supply), it completes the circuit. Electrical current runs from the positive terminal of the power supply up the positive rail, across the projectile, and down the negative rail, back to the power supply (Fig.1).
Fig.1. Schematic diagrams of a railgun.
If a very large power supply providing a million amperes or so of current is used, then the force on the projectile will be tremendous, and by the time it leaves the ends of the rails it can be travelling at many kilometres per second. 20 kilometers per second has been achieved with small projectiles explosively injected into the railgun. Although these speeds are theoretically possible, the heat generated from the propulsion of the object is enough to rapidly erode the rails. Such a railgun would require frequent replacement of the rails, or use a heat resistant material that would be conductive enough to produce the same effect (fig.2, left). Please notice the gigantic cloud of plasma behind the projectile. That is the result of an electric arc between the contacts. About 70 - 80% of electric energy is lost uselessly.
Fig.2. (left) Naval Surface Warfare Center test firing in January 2008, leaving a plume of plasma behind the projectile; (right) the future military ship used the railguns.
The power supply must be able to deliver large currents, with both capacitors and compulsators being common.
The rails need to withstand enormous repulsive forces during firing, and these forces will tend to push them apart and away from the projectile. As rail/projectile clearances increase, electrical arcing develops, which causes rapid vaporization and extensive damage to the rail surfaces and the insulator surfaces. This limits most research railguns to one shot per service interval.
Some have speculated that there are fundamental limits to the exit velocity due to the inductance of the system, and particularly of the rails; but United States government has made significant progress in railgun design and has recently floated designs of a railgun that would be used on a naval vessel. The designs for the naval vessels, however, are limited by their required power usages for the magnets in the rail guns. This level of power is currently unattainable on a ship and reduces the usefulness of the concept for military purposes.
Massive amounts of heat are created by the electricity flowing through the rails, as well as the friction of the projectile leaving the device. This leads to three main problems: melting of equipment, safety of personnel, and detection by enemy forces. As briefly discussed above, the stresses involved in firing this sort of device require an extremely heat-resistant material. Otherwise the rails, barrel, and all equipment attached would melt or be irreparably damaged. Current railguns are not sufficiently powerful to create enough heat to damage anything; however the military is pushing for more and more powerful prototypes. The immense heat released in firing a railgun could potentially injure or even kill bystanders. The heat released would not only be dangerous, but easily detectable. While not visible to the naked eye, the heat signature would be unmistakable to infrared detectors. All of these problems can be solved by the invention of an effective cooling method.
Railguns are being pursued as weapons with projectiles that do not contain explosives, but are given extremely high velocities: 3500 m/s (11,500 ft/s) or more (for comparison, the M16 rifle has a muzzle speed of 930 m/s, or 3,000 ft/s), which would make their kinetic energy equal or superior to the energy yield of an explosive-filled shell of greater mass. This would allow more ammunition to be carried and eliminate the hazards of carrying explosives in a tank or naval weapons platform. Also, by firing at higher velocities railguns have greater range, less bullet drop and less wind drift, bypassing the inherent cost and physical limitations of conventional firearms - "the limits of gas expansion prohibit launching an unassisted projectile to velocities greater than about 1.5 km/s and ranges of more than 50 miles [80 km] from a practical conventional gun system."
If it is ever possible to apply the technology as a rapid-fire automatic weapon, a railgun would have further advantages in increased rate of fire. The feed mechanisms of a conventional firearm must move to accommodate the propellant charge as well as the ammunition round, while a railgun would only need to accommodate the projectile. Furthermore, a railgun would not have to extract a spent cartridge case from the breech, meaning that a fresh round could be cycled almost immediately after the previous round has been shot.
Tests of Railgun. Full-scale models have been built and fired, including a very successful 90 mm bore, 9 MJ (6.6 million foot-pounds) kinetic energy gun developed by DARPA, but they all suffer from extreme rail damage and need to be serviced after every shot. Rail and insulator ablation issues still need to be addressed before railguns can start to replace conventional weapons. Probably the most successful system was built by the UK's Defence Research Agency at Dundrennan Range in Kirkcudbright, Scotland. This system has now been operational for over 10 years at an associated flight range for internal, intermediate, external and terminal ballistics, and is the holder of several mass and velocity records.
The United States military is funding railgun experiments. At the University of Texas at Austin Institute for Advanced Technology, military railguns capable of delivering tungsten armor piercing bullets with kinetic energies of nine million joules have been developed. Nine mega-joules is enough energy to deliver 2 kg of projectile at 3 km/s - at that velocity of a tungsten or other dense metal rod could penetrate a tank.
The United States Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division demonstrated an 8 mega-joule rail gun firing 3.2 kilogram (slightly more than 7 pounds) projectiles in October of 2006 as a prototype of a 64 mega-joule weapon to be deployed aboard Navy warships. Such weapons are expected to be powerful enough to do a little more damage than a BGM-109 Tomahawk missile at a fraction of the projectile cost.
Due to the very high muzzle velocity that can be attained with railguns, there is interest in using them to shoot down high-speed missiles.
Low current multi-loop railguns
Fig. 3. Conventional and low current launchers. (a) Conventional high current and low voltage railgun; (b) Offered low current launcher with the wire horizontal multi-loops (version 1); (c) Offered low current launcher with the wire vertical multi-loops (version 2); (d) Offered low current launcher with the wire horizontal and vertical muiti-loops (version 3); (f) RailGun with condenser. (version 4). Notations: 1 - installation, 2 - vertical wire, 3 - magnetic field from vertical wire; 4 - moved vertical force from jumper; 5 - magnetic force from vertical electric wire, 6 - electric source, 7- sliding contact, 8 - horizontal jumper, 9 - magnetic column, 10 - multi-loop spool, 11, 12 - horizontal force wire connected in one bunch, 13 - force multi-loops spools connected in one spool, 14 - condenser, 15 - electric switch.
Multi-loop Railguns with permanent magnets
Plasma magnetic launcher
The thin wire may be initial initiator of a of plasma cable. Then a plasma conductor supports the big current.
The offered plasma cable may be used in other technical fields [2] -[4]. This problem needs further research.
Fig.5. Offered plasma launchers. (a) Launcher having conventional vertical wire and plasma jumper; (b) Launcher having vertical and horizontal (jumper) plasma wires. Notations: 1- projectile, 2 - horizontal plasma jumper, 3 - gas sealing, 4 - conducting tube, 5 - electric current into plasma.
General Equations
, (1)
. (2)
The force from two vertical wires is
, (3)
where n1 is number of wire loops at horizontal connection (fig.3b, #11)(in proposed force spool), number of wire loops may be some hundreds; ?0 = 4??10-7 - magnetic constant, H/m; i is electric current in the vertical and single horizontal wire, A; H is magnetic intensity in V/m, B is magnetic intensity in T; l is acceleration distance, m.
The magnetic field acts only on the lower horizontal part 11 of the right-angled force spool because the top horizontal part is far from vertical support wire (at top of installation).
The equation (2) without the spools (n1 = 1) is the well-known equation (1) for the rail gun. The proposed innovation (the force multi-loop spool) increases the force by n1 times (for same current i) but simultaneously increases the required the projectile voltage also by n1 times if the installation changes its size (for example, the projectile moves thus altering the effective length of the connection) .
The spool also creates a strong magnetic field but this field acts only on the spool and produces tensile stress only into the spool. It easily is compensated for by film, fiber or composed material (reinforcement) located in the force spool.
Example: for i = 104 A, n1= 103, b = 10 the force is F = 4"105 N = 40 tons. If i = 2"104 A, the F = 160 tons. If i = 105 A, the F = 4000 tons. Approximately that is the weight of the structure, which can be accelerated or suspended over Earth's surface [5].
Look your attention the inductive loss decreases in n1 times (last equation in (3)).
For given force F the required current is
, (4)
Example: For F = 300,000 N, n1 = 103, b = 10 the i = 8.7"103 A.
, (5)
Example: for i = 104 A, d = 0.1 m, the force is F1 = 200 N/m = 20 kgf/m.
, (6)
Example: for n1 = 100, d = 0.1 m, q - 2"10-2 kg/m , the mass one spool is 0.6 kg.
, (7)
Here Vmax is maximal speed, m/s; S is acceleration distance, m.
. (8)
, (9)
where E is an electric heat energy in 1 m wire, J/m; R is electric resistance, Ohm; i is electric current, A; t is time, sec; ? is the specific electric resistance (for copper ? = 1.75?10-8 ??m); s is cross-section area, m2; m is mass 1m of wire, kg; ? is the specific wire density, kg/m3, ? = 8930 kg/m3 for cooper; j is current density, A/m2.
Let us to find the energy (heat) absorbs the wire and the cooling liquid
, (10)
Example: For copper wire without a cooling liquid for the shot time t = 0,003 sec, safety temperature ?Tm = 80oK, we has the j = 3.26?103 A/mm2. For copper wire with a water cooling liquid having ml/m = 1 for safety ?Tm = ?T = 80oK, we has the j = 21?103 A/mm2.
, (11)
where n = n1 + n2 is number horizontal and vertical loops.
, (12)
Let us to estimate the length of barrel from the law of energy. Assume that an induce energy is full transferred to projectile energy. Then (for conventional railgun):
(13)
where Ei is the maximal inductive energy, J; E is the kinetic energy, J; V1 is final projectile speed, m/s; V0 is a projectile speed in moment of turn-off of the current, m/s; m is mass of projectile, kg; l is length of barrel in time of a maximal current, m; the other notations are same with previous equations.
, (14)
where E1is additional energy to projectile, J; l1 is additional length of barrel, m; i1 is average electric current after switch of the electric source, A; the other notations are same with previous equations.
(15)
is the light speed in vacuum, m/s .
. (16)
. Where r is an ohm resistance, ?. This condition is correct in our case. That means the radio locator can catch the shot in distance of thousand kilometers.
, (17)
The electric current is very high (some million volts). That way the voltage in rails in disconnection of projectile is also very high (tens of millions volts).
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In this design the vertical wire changes the permanent magnets. Here we can have also four design (versions) of fig.3a-d. Let us to give the computation equations for these cases.
, (18)
where l is length of wire into an intensity magnetic field of permanent magnate, m (see Fig.4b); B is magnetic intensity into area of active wire, T.
, (19)
, (20)
4. Multi-loops launcher (having horizontal and vertical loops, fig.3d).
. (21)
The launcher with the permanent magnet having a lot of coils has a small current. That can have a spring vertical wire and not have a sliding contact (fig.4c).
The properties of launchers with permanent magnets are strong depending from B.
Below is short information about magnets.
Neodymium magnets are very strong relative to their mass, but are also mechanically fragile. High-temperature grades will operate at up to 200 and even 230®C but their strength is only marginally greater than that of a samarium-cobalt magnet. As of 2008 neodymium magnets cost about $44/kg, $1.40 per BHmax.
Most neodymium magnets are anisotropic, and hence can only be magnetized along one direction although B10N material is isotropic. During manufacture fields of 30-40 kOe are required to saturate the material. Neodymium magnets have a coercivity (required demagnetisation field from saturation) of about 10,000-12,000 Oersted. Neodymium magnets (or "neo" as they are known in the industry) are graded in strength from N24 to the strongest, N55. The theoretical limit for neodymium magnets is grade N64. The number after the N represents the magnetic energy product, in megagauss-oersteds (MGOe) (1 MG"Oe = 7,958"10Ё T"A/m = 7,958 kJ/mЁ). N48 has a remnant static magnetic field of 1.38 teslas and an H (magnetic field intensity) of 13,800 Oersteds (1.098 MA/m). By volume one requires about 18 times as much ceramic magnetic material for the equivalent magnet lifting strength, and about 3 to 5 times as much for the equivalent dipole moment. A neodymium magnet can hold up to 1300 times its own weight.
The neodymium magnet industry is continually working to push the maximum energy product (strength) closer to the theoretical maximum of 64 MGOe. Scientists are also working hard to improve the maximum operating temperature for any given strength.
Physical and mechanical properties: Electrical resistivity 160 Ѕ-ohm-cm/cm2; Density 7.4-7.5 g/cm3; Bending strength 24 kg/mm2; Compressive strength 80 kg/mm2; Young's modulus 1.7 x 104 kg/mm2; Thermal conductivity 7.7 kcal/m-h-®C; Vickers hardness 500 - 600.
Samarium-cobalt magnets are primarily composed of samarium and cobalt. They have been available since the early 1970s. This type of rare-earth magnet is very powerful, however they are brittle and prone to cracking and chipping. Samarium-cobalt magnets have Maximum Energy Products (BHmax) that range from 16 Mega-Gauss Oersteds (MGOe) to 32 MGOe, their theoretical limit is 34 MGOe. Samarium Cobalt magnets are available in two "series", namely Series 1:5 and Series 2:17.
Material properties: Density: 8.4 g/cmЁ ; Electrical Resistivity 0.8в10--4 ?"cm; Coefficient of thermal expansion (perpendicular to axis): 12.5 Ѕm/(m"K) .
Alnico is an acronym referring to alloys which are composed primarily of aluminium (symbol Al), nickel (symbol Ni) and cobalt (symbol Co), hence al-ni-co, with the addition of iron, copper, and sometimes titanium, typically 8-12% Al, 15-26% Ni, 5-24% Co, up to 6% Cu, up to 1% Ti, and the balance is Fe. The primary use of alnico alloys is magnet applications.
Alnico remanence (Br) may exceed 12,000 G (1.2 T), its coercion force (Hc) can be up to 1000 oersted (80 kA/m), its energy product ((BH)max) can be up to 5.5 MG"Oe (44 T"A/m)--this means alnico can produce high magnetic flux in closed magnetic circuit, but has relatively small resistance against demagnetization.
As of 2008, Alnico magnets cost about $20/pound or $4.30/BHmax.
Electrolytic steel. The good properties have conventional electrolytic steel, which uses in conventional electric engines, electric machines, transformer. That is cheap, has the magnetic intensity up 1.7 T and easy magnetize. After shot the magnate with outer magnetizing returns the induced energy in an electric network. The magnetic field is created only in shot.
Computation of the Plasma Magnetic Launcher
The Plasma Magnetic Launcher is computed as the conventional Railgun. The specific electric resistance is computed by equation
, [??m], (22)
where z is ion charge (conventional z = 1); T is plasma temperature in eV; ln? is Coulombs logarithm (ln? - 3 ¤ 10). The electric resistance of plasma for T = 100 eV is close to metal conductors. However the plasma jumper can have a large contact area, have a small mass and a gas sliding contact.
Projects
The most suitable computation for the proposed projects is made in examples in Theoretical section.
That way much data is given without detailed explanation. Our design is not optimal but merely for estimation of the main data.
The DARPA and NAVY (USA) and UK have a program for the warship railgun capable to accelerate a 2 kg projectile up to speeds of 3 km/s (see end of Introduction). We take the common projectile mass m = 10 kg (projectile + wire system), final speed V = 3 km/s and estimate the parameters of the suggested accelerator.
The heat loss and plasma flash decreases approximately in 10 times, but useful mass of projectile decreases about 60% because the wire spool at projectile has a mass.
Conclusion
In this article the author describes the new ideas, theory and computations for design the new low electric current launchers for the railgun projectile and space apparatus.
Important advantage of the offered design is the lower (up some tens times) used electric current of high voltage and the very high inductive efficiency coefficient close to 0.9 (compared with efficiency of the current railgun equal to 20 - 40%). The suggested launchers may be produced by present technology.
Small cheap magnetic prototypes would be easily tested.
(The reader may find some of these articles, at the author's web page: http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm , in http://www.scribd.org , in the WEB of Cornel University http://arxiv.org , and in http://aiaa.org search term
"Bolonkin")
1. Bolonkin A.A., Magnetic Space AB-Accelerator. http://www.scribd.com/doc/26885058
3. Bolonkin A.A., New Concepts, Ideas and Innovations in Aerospace, Technology and Human
Sciences, NOVA, 2007, 502 pgs. http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057071, http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm
4. Bolonkin A.A., Cathcart R.B., Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology, NOVA, 2008,
537 pgs. http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057930 . http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm .
5. Bolonkin A., Magnetic Suspended AB-Structures and Immobile Space Stations,
Joint Propulsion Conference, 2-5 August 2009, Denver, CO, USA. http://www.scribd.com/doc/24051286
pp. 394-404. http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm
8. Bolonkin A.A., "Space Cable Launchers", Paper No. 8057 presented at the Symposium
"The Next 100 years", Dayton, OH, USA, 14-17 July, 2003. http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm
9. Bolonkin A.A., Centrifugal Space Launcher, Presented as paper AIAA-2005-4035 at the
41st Propulsion Conference, 10-12 July 2005, Tucson, AZ, USA. http://aiaa.org,
http://www.scribd.com/doc/24056182 Ch.10.
10. Bolonkin A.A., Electrostatic Linear Engine and Cable Space AB Launcher,
Paper AIAA-2006-5229 for 42 Joint Propulsion Conference, Sacramento, USA, 9-12 July,
2006. See also AEAT Vol.78, No.2006, pp. 502-508. http://aiaa.org, http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm
http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/0807/0807.1948.pdf (12 July, 2008).
44th Joint Propulsion Conference, 20-24 July, 2008, Hartford, CT, http://aiaa.org .
(Ch.13 . in the book "Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology", NOVA, 2008)
#4,795,113, January 3, 1989.
22. Wikipedia. Some background material in this article is gathered from Wikipedia under the
Creative Commons license. http://wikipedia.org .
Chapter 10
Superconductivity Space Accelerator
Abstract
In this Chapter the author describes a new idea, theory and computations for design of a new magnetic low cost accelerator for railgun projectile and space apparatus. The suggested design does not have the traditional current rails and sliding contacts. This accelerates the projectile and space apparatus by a magnetic column which can have a length of some kilometers, produces a very high acceleration and projectile (apparatus) final speed of up to 8 - 10 km/s.
Important advantages of the offered design is the low (up to some thousands of times) used electric current of high voltage and very high efficiency coefficient close to 1 (compare with efficiency of the current railgun which equals 20 - 40%). The suggested accelerator may be produced by present technology.
--------
The space elevator requires very strong nanotubes, as well as rockets and high technology for the initial development. The tube air rocket and non-rocket systems require more detailed research. The electromagnetic transport system, suggested by Minovich (US Patent, 4,795,113, 3 January, 1989)[11], is not realistic at the present time. It requires a vacuum underground tunnel 1530 kilometers long located at a depth of 40 kilometers. The project requires an active cooling system (because the temperature is very high at this depth), a complex power electromagnetic system, and a huge impulse of energy that is greater than the energy of all the electric generating stations on Earth.
This article suggests a very simple and inexpensive method and installation for launching into space.
This is a new space launcher system for delivering hypersonic speeds. This method uses a low electric current (but a high voltage). Installation does not have a electric current rail or sliding electric contact and has a very high efficiency. This method requires superconductivity, but this problem is successfully solved by author's innovations in design of the working superconductivity wire.
Below is common information useful for understanding proposed ideas and research.
A rocket is a vehicle, missile or aircraft which obtains thrust by the reaction to the ejection of fast moving fluid from within a rocket engine. Chemical rockets operate due to hot exhaust gas made from "propellant" acting against the inside of an expansion nozzle. This generates forces that both accelerate the gas to extremely high speed, as well as, since every action has an equal and opposite reaction, generating a large thrust on the rocket.
The history of rockets goes back to at least the 13th century, possibly earlier. By the 20th century it included human spaceflight to the Moon, and in the 21st century rockets have enabled commercial space tourism.
Rockets are used for fireworks and weaponry, as launch vehicles for artificial satellites, human spaceflight and exploration of other planets. While they are inefficient for low speed use, they are, compared to other propulsion systems, very lightweight, enormously powerful and can achieve extremely high speeds.
Chemical rockets contain a large amount of energy in an easily liberated form, and can be very dangerous, although careful design, testing, construction and use can minimise the risks.
A rocket engine is a jet engine that takes all its reaction mass ("propellant") from within tankage and forms it into a high speed jet, thereby obtaining thrust in accordance with Newton's third law. Rocket engines can be used for spacecraft propulsion as well as terrestrial uses, such as missiles. Most rocket engines are internal combustion engines, although non combusting forms also exist.
A wire carrying an electrical current, when in a magnetic field, experiences a force perpendicular to the direction of the current and the direction of the magnetic field.
In an electric motor, fixed magnets create a magnetic field, and a coil of wire is carried upon a shaft that is free to rotate. An electrical current flows through the coil causing it to experience a force due to the magnetic field. The wires of the coil are arranged such that all the forces on the wires make the shaft rotate, and so the motor runs.
If a very large power supply providing a million amperes or so of current is used, then the force on the projectile will be tremendous, and by the time it leaves the ends of the rails it can be travelling at many kilometres per second. 20 kilometers per second has been achieved with small projectiles explosively injected into the railgun. Although these speeds are theoretically possible, the heat generated from the propulsion of the object is enough to rapidly erode the rails. Such a railgun would require frequent replacement of the rails, or use a heat resistant material that would be conductive enough to produce the same effect. Please notice the gigantic cloud of plasma behind the projectile. That is the result of a electric arc between the contacts. About 70 - 80% of electric energy is lost uselessly.
The power supply must be able to deliver large currents, with both capacitors and compulsators being common.
The rails need to withstand enormous repulsive forces during firing, and these forces will tend to push them apart and away from the projectile. As rail/projectile clearances increase, electrical arcing develops, which causes rapid vaporization and extensive damage to the rail surfaces and the insulator surfaces. This limits most research railguns to one shot per service interval.
Some have speculated that there are fundamental limits to the exit velocity due to the inductance of the system, and particularly of the rails; but United States government has made significant progress in railgun design and has recently floated designs of a railgun that would be used on a naval vessel. The designs for the naval vessels, however, are limited by their required power usages for the magnets in the rail guns. This level of power is currently unattainable on a ship and reduces the usefulness of the concept for military purposes.
Massive amounts of heat are created by the electricity flowing through the rails, as well as the friction of the projectile leaving the device. This leads to three main problems: melting of equipment, safety of personnel, and detection by enemy forces. As briefly discussed above, the stresses involved in firing this sort of device require an extremely heat-resistant material. Otherwise the rails, barrel, and all equipment attached would melt or be irreparably damaged. Current railguns are not sufficiently powerful to create enough heat to damage anything; however the military is pushing for more and more powerful prototypes. The immense heat released in firing a railgun could potentially injure or even kill bystanders. The heat released would not only be dangerous, but easily detectable. While not visible to the naked eye, the heat signature would be unmistakable to infrared detectors. All of these problems can be solved by the invention of an effective cooling method.
Railguns are being pursued as weapons with projectiles that do not contain explosives, but are given extremely high velocities: 3500 m/s (11,500 ft/s) or more (for comparison, the M16 rifle has a muzzle speed of 930 m/s, or 3,000 ft/s), which would make their kinetic energy equal or superior to the energy yield of an explosive-filled shell of greater mass. This would allow more ammunition to be carried and eliminate the hazards of carrying explosives in a tank or naval weapons platform. Also, by firing at higher velocities railguns have greater range, less bullet drop and less wind drift, bypassing the inherent cost and physical limitations of conventional firearms - "the limits of gas expansion prohibit launching an unassisted projectile to velocities greater than about 1.5 km/s and ranges of more than 50 miles [80 km] from a practical conventional gun system."
If it is ever possible to apply the technology as a rapid-fire automatic weapon, a railgun would have further advantages in increased rate of fire. The feed mechanisms of a conventional firearm must move to accommodate the propellant charge as well as the ammunition round, while a railgun would only need to accommodate the projectile. Furthermore, a railgun would not have to extract a spent cartridge case from the breech, meaning that a fresh round could be cycled almost immediately after the previous round has been shot.
Tests of Railgun. Full-scale models have been built and fired, including a very successful 90 mm bore, 9 MJ (6.6 million foot-pounds) kinetic energy gun developed by DARPA, but they all suffer from extreme rail damage and need to be serviced after every shot. Rail and insulator ablation issues still need to be addressed before railguns can start to replace conventional weapons. Probably the most successful system was built by the UK's Defence Research Agency at Dundrennan Range in Kirkcudbright, Scotland. This system has now been operational for over 10 years at an associated flight range for internal, intermediate, external and terminal ballistics, and is the holder of several mass and velocity records.
The United States military is funding railgun experiments. At the University of Texas at Austin Institute for Advanced Technology, military railguns capable of delivering tungsten armor piercing bullets with kinetic energies of nine million joules have been developed. Nine mega-joules is enough energy to deliver 2 kg of projectile at 3 km/s - at that velocity a tungsten or other dense metal rod could penetrate a tank.
The United States Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division demonstrated an 8 mega-joule rail gun firing 3.2 kilogram (slightly more than 7 pounds) projectiles in October of 2006 as a prototype of a 64 mega-joule weapon to be deployed aboard Navy warships. Such weapons are expected to be powerful enough to do a little more damage than a BGM-109 Tomahawk missile at a fraction of the projectile cost.
Due to the very high muzzle velocity that can be attained with railguns, there is interest in using them to shoot down high-speed missiles.
New type of magnetic acceleration (magnetic AB-column)
1. Description of Innovations. The conventional magnetic accelerator (railgun) is shown in fig.1. That contains two the conductive rails connected by a sliding jumper. Electric currents produce the magnetic field and magnetic force. The jumper accepts the magnetic force and accelerates the projectile. Main defects of conventional rail gun: The rail gun requires a gigantic current (millions of amperes) of low voltage, rails have large electric resistance, strongly heating up, contacts burn, installation is damaged and requires repair after every shot. The energy charge is high (small coefficient of efficiency. You see the gigantic plasma column behind the small projectile in fig.2). The repulsive force between rails is gigantic (thousands of tons) and installation is thus heavy and expensive if it is to survive a single shot.
The second important innovation is the connection spool, which increases the acceleration distance, deletes the sliding contacts and heavy rails.
Fig.1. Principal sketch of the Magnetic AB-Accelerator. Notations: (a) Principal sketch of conventional (one turn) magnetic accelerator, (b) - Multi-loop force spool at top of accelerator (same force spool located at ground), (c) - rocket (projectile) with detachable magnetic accelerator at bottom. Parts: 1 - magnetic installation with magnetic column, 1a - sliding contct, 2 - vertical wire and direction of electric current i, 2a - horizontal wire (jumper) and direction of electric current i, 3 - magnetic field from vertical electric wire, 3a - magnetic column, 4 - magnetic force from horizontal electric wire (jumper), 5 - magnetic force from vertical electric wire, 6 - electric source, 7 - connection spool, 8 - rocket (projectile), 9 - force spool, 10 - magnetic accelerator, 11 - wire multi-loop superconductive force spool at top (same spool located also on Earth surface), 12 - lower wires of loop (force spool), 13 - top wires of loop (force spool), 14 - magnetic field from vertical wire, 15 - thin film or artificial fiber connected the vertical wires for compensation the magnetic repulse force, 16 - repulsive magnetic force, 17 - acceleration force, 18 - area strong magnetic field, i - electric current in vertical wire, ni - electric current in the force spool.
2. Connection spools. The connection spools can be located at accelerator and at the ground. Every design has its advantages and limitations. Three constructions of the connection spools are presented in fig.2. The first design (fig.4a) has immobile vertical spools. That is simple but results in a limited safe high speed of the launched apparatus and requires the connection device 9. The second design (fig.2b) has the horizontal spool rotated by an engine. This connection spool is limited by the safe rotary speed of the spool and also requires the connection device 9. The third design (fig.4c) has engine and also limited by a safety rotary of spool, but it does not request the connection device 9 because the wires are connected by fiber before spooling in the connection spool.
The limitation is about 1 - 3 km/s for the current artificial fiber (whiskers) having a safe tensile stresses about 200 - 1000 kgf/mm2. But if we use nanotubes, the limit is more by 5 -10 times.
While the nitrogen evaporates the temperature is 77 K and installation can accelerate the projectile or space apparatus. After acceleration the accelerator separates, wires are spooling and installation is ready for next shot.
There are hundreds of new superconductive materials (type 2) having critical temperature 70 ? 120 K and more. Some of the superconductable materials are presented in Table 1 (2001). The widely used YBa2Cu3O7 has mass density 7 g/cm3.
Table 1. Transition temperature Tc and upper critical magnetic field B = Hc2(0) of some examined superconductors [14 ], p. 752.
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- -- No problem with burn of rail and contact.
- -- No damage and repair of installation after every shot.
- -- Limit in speed of projectile is high (7 - 9 km/s).
- -- No limit to mass of projectile.
- -- Installation is cheaper.
- -- Installation requires ~2 - 3 times less of energy than same output conventional railgun.
. (1)
The force from two vertical wires is
(2)
where F is magnetic force, N; n is number of wire loops at horizontal connection (fig.3, #11)(in proposed force spool), number of wire loops may be some thousands; ?0 = 4??10-7 - magnetic constant, H/m; d is distance between centers of vertical wire, m; a is radius of wire (internal tube) or thickness of a conductive layer (plate conductor), m; b - 5 - 10; i is electric current in the vertical and single horizontal wire, A; H is magnetic intensity in V/m, B is magnetic intensity in T; l is distance, m.
The magnetic field acts only on the lower horizontal part of the right-angled force spool because the top horizontal part is far from vertical support wire (at top of installation).
The equation (2) without the spools (n = 1) is the well-known equation for the rail gun. The proposed innovation (the right-angled force spool) increases the force by n times but simultaneously increases the required voltage also by n times if the installation changes its size (for example, altitude) or the projectile moves.
The spool also creates a strong magnetic field but this field acts only on the spool and produces tensile stress only into the spool. It easy is compensated for by film, fiber or composed material (reinforcement) located in the force spool.
Example: for i = 104 A, n = 103, b = 10 the force is F = 4"105 N = 40 tons. If i = 2"104 A, the F = 160 tons. If i = 105 A, the F = 4000 tons. Approximately that is the weight of the structure, which can be accelerated or suspended over Earth's surface.
The stationary (immovable) installation using superconductive wires doesn't need maintenance (hovering) energy. If installation is lifting (the projectile is moving), the accelerator requires input energy (electric voltage). This voltage and power are computed as below:
, (3)
where V is speed of projectile or a top force spool of installation, m/s.
For given force F the required current is
, (4)
Example: For F = 300,000 N, n = 103, b = 10 the i = 8.7"103 A.
, (5)
Example: for i = 104 A, d = 2 m, the force is F1 = 10 N/m = 1 kgf/m.
, (6)
Example: for the current cheap artificial fiber ? = 1800 kg/m3, ? = 2"109 N/m2 (safety ? = 200 kgf/mm2) (see Table 3), i = 104 A the mass mf = 1.8"10-5 kg/m. That is only 1.8 kg over100 km of distance.
, (7)
where mw is mass of electric wire of 1 m length (only superconductive layer) , kg/m; ?w is specific density of superconductive layer, kg/m3; s is cross-section area of layer, m2; j is density of the electric current, A/m2.
, (8)
?v - 1800 kg/m3 is specific density of tube (artificial fiber or nanotubes); Fv is force, N; ? is safe tensile stress, N/m2; q is full mass of 1 m tube included the mass of conductor and nitrogen , kg/m; H is vertical length of wire, m; V is apparatus speed, m/s; g = 9.81m/s2 is gravity acceleration. For railgun values H = 0, q may be constant and easy for estimation (see point 7). For space apparatus with high speed and altitude the optimal q(H) is variable and you must apply the method of successive approximation or others. In other case average q = 0.5q(Vm,Hm), where Vm, Hm are maximal speed and altitude.
Example: For Fv = 1000 N, ? = 1800 kg/m3 and ? = 200 kgf/mm2 = 2?109 N/m2, the mv = 0.9 g/m .
, (9)
where ?n = 804 kg/m3 is specific density of nitrogen; sn is cross-section of internal tube, m2;
Example: For sn =1 mm2, the mn = 0.8 g/m.
. (11)
Example: for n = 1000, d = 1 m, q - 2"10-3 kg/m , the mass one spool is 6 kg.
, (12)
where q is linear support mass for height 1 m, kg/m; H is wire length, m.
, (13)
?h is altitude stress, N/m2; ? is general safety stress, N/m2; ? is specific average mass (tube) density,
kg/m3, g = 9.81 m/s2 is gravity. F is force, N; ms is second mass, kg/s; q is linear wire mass, kg/m.
1.8"103 kg/m3 the V = 1050 m/s, H = 110 km. For nanotube having ? = 10,000 kgf/mm2 = 1011
N/m2 , ? - 1.8"103 kg/m3 the V = 7.4 km/s, H = 5500 km. Nanotubes are expensive but requested
amount is small. The price of nanotubes decreases every year. The limit of H significantly
decreases if accelerate apparatus has an enough horizontal speed because a part of wire losses a
weight. The variable cross-section of wire (conic form) can also significantly increases limit of H.
The mass of wire system usually equals 5 - 15% of a common mass of projectile (accelerated
apparatus). That mass may be significantly decreased (by 2 -3 times), if the cross-section of wire
is made variable.
, (14)
where m is mass of installation part, kg; go = 9.81 m/s2 is Earth's acceleration; R0 = 6378 km = 6.378?106 m is Earth radius, m; R = R0 + H is radius at the located part, m; ? = 72.685"10-6 rad/sec is Earth angle speed, 1/s; g is Earth gravity (include Earth rotation) at the given altitude, m/s2. Geosynchronous orbit is Rg = 42200 km. At altitude H = 0 the Fw - mgo , at altitude H = Rg - R0 the Fw - 0.
, (15)
where aa is apparatus acceleration, m/s2.
Example: for levitate apparatus having mass m = 10,000 kg and an acceleration aa = go = 10 m/s2 the force (15) is Fc = 2?105 N and required an electric current i = 5"103 A (Eq. (4) for n = 1000, b = 10).
, (16)
Here Vmax is maximal speed, m/s; S is distance, m.
Example: for S = 100 km, aa = 10 m/s2 the acceleration time is t = 141 sec, Vmax = 1410 m/s; for aa = 50 m/s2, S = 100 km the t - 63 sec, Vmax =3.15"103 m/s.
, (17)
where U is voltage, V; V is apparatus speed, m/s; P is power, W. The rest nomenclature is same Eq. (2).
Example: For mass of apparatus m = 10 tons, the electric current i = 5"103 A, n = 1000, b = 10, maximal velocity Vmax = 103 m/s the maximum voltage is Umax = 2?104 V; maximal electric power is Pmax = = 108 W.
(18)
where S is length of loop, m. The rest nomenclature is same with Eq. (2).
Example: For i = 104 A, b = 10, S = 100 km, the Li = 0.66 H, Ei = 3.3?107 J. This energy losses in moment of disconnection projectile from accelerator.
. (19)
, (20)
Example: For i = 104 A and internal tube of wire rw = 0.001 m the Bw - 2 T; for spool rs = 1 m, i = 103 A and number of coil revolution n = 1000 the Bs = 2? = 6.28 T. Both values are less 100 - 250 T which is safety for superconductive conductor (see Table 1).
The specific magnetic pressure in the wire and spool are
. (21)
Example: For i = 104 A, tube rw = 0.01 m and Bw - 0.2 T the p = 1.5?104 N/m2 = 0.15 atm; for spool rs = 1 m, number of coil revolution n = 1000, Bs = 2? = 6.28 T the p = 3.14?105 N/m2 = 3.14 atm.
- -- Equation of heat balance of a body in vacuum (space)
, (22)
, (23)
, (24)
where F2 is area of the outer cylinder, m2; F1 is area of internal cylinder, m2.
When we use a vacuum and row (n) of the thin screens, the heat flow is
, (25)
is coerced coefficient of heat transfer between wire and the nearest screen, Ca is coerced coefficient of heat transfer between two near by screens; n is number of additional screen (revolutions of vacuumed thin foil around central superconductive wire).
, n = 1, ? = 0.05, T1 = 288 K (15 C, average Earth temperature), T2 = 77.3 K (liquid nitrogen) we have the qn = 5.7 W/m2.
Expense of cooling liquid and power for converting back the vapor into cooling liquid are
, (26)
The 100 km loop requires approximately 25 kg/day of liquid nitrogen. If we take more additional screens (n > 1), the required cooling is decreased.
- -- When we use the conventional heat protection, the amount of cool energy, heat flow through cylindrical tube and protection time are computed by equations
, (27)
where Q is amount of cooling energy in 1 m of wire, J/m; P is heat flow through cylindrical tube, W/m; t - is cooling time, sec; ? - heat conductivity coefficient, W/m.K. For air ? = 0.0244, for glass-wool ? = 0.037; ? is heat evaporation, kJ/kg (Table #2); ? is density of a cooling liquid, kg/m3 (Table #2); s cross-section of cooling canal, m2; T2 = 288 K is outer (air) temperature, K; T1 = 77 K is temperature of nitrogen, K; d2 is outer diameter of wire tube, m; d1 is internal diameter of wire tube, m;
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Table 3. Density, temperature, head conduction, heat capacity, temperature conduction of materials
[20], p.351.
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rature T oC |
ductivity ? W/m.K |
capacity c kJ/kg K |
conductivity a 106 , m2/s |
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, (28)
For equilibrium the voltage U between the vertical wires and consumed power P must be
. (29)
Example: For i = 103 A, b = 3 the U = 1.8"105 V and P = 1.8"105 kW. That value is big and this method of compensation is less suitable.
, (30)
where w is speed of an exhaust rocket gas, m/s.
Example. If ?V = 1000 m/s, w = 2500 m/s the A = 1.49 - 1.5. That is increasing net payload by 50%.
If ?V = 7000 m/s, w = 2500 m/s the A = 16.4 . That is increasing net payload by 1640%. A modern medium launcher thus becomes the equivalent of a Saturn V.
Projects
The most suitable computation for the proposed projects is made in Examples in Theoretical section.
That way much data is given without detailed explanation. Our design is not optimal but merely for estimation of the main data.
Let us take the linear wire mass q = 0.002 kg/m. The connection length of wire is 90 m, the force spool wire is 300 m. The total mass complex (together with nitrogen wire is Mw = qL = 0.002.390 = 0.78 kg. Let us take the simplest motionless (not rotated) connection spools, (fig. 4a). The maximal tensile stress will be at maximal projectile speed (Eq.(13)) ? = ?V2 = 1800"9"106 = 16.2"109 N/m2 = 1630 kgf/mm2. This stress can be withstood only by nanotubes (or whiskers, see Table 2). That is a disadvantage of the AB-Accelerator. But amount of nanotube is small and so is the price if a projectile is not big. If we use the nanotube for cover of the wire we can increase the maximal speed of projectile up 7 km/s (see Theoretical section).
Project 2. AB-Accelerator for space tourism suborbital rocket
The requested force is F = ma = 5.106 N, the requested length of wire is S = V2/2a = 10 km, the Kinetic energy of projectile is E = mV2/2 = 5"1010 J. The average power is P = E/t =2.5"109 W.
Let us take the linear wire mass q = 0.003 kg/m. The connection length of wire is 10,000 m, the force spool wire is 3000 m. The total mass complex (together with nitrogen wire is Mw = qL = 0.003.23,000 = 69 kg. Let us take the simplest motionless (not rotated connection spools, fig. 4a). The maximal tensile stress will be at maximal projectile speed and altitude (Eq.(13)) ? = ?V2 + g?H = 2"109 N/m2 = 200 kgf/mm2. This stress can be withstood by conventional artificial fiber (see Table 2).
For maximal acceleration speed V = 1000 m/s the payload increases in 50% (without addition from high initial altitude). For acceleration speed V = 7000 m/s the payload increases in 1640% (see Eq.(32)). As noted before, with such a multiplier a medium boost vehicle (~10 tons payload, say a Falcon 9) can become thus the equivalent of a Saturn 5. Even a Falcon 1 (<1 ton payload) can become thus the equivalent of a Falcon 9.
Conclusion
In this article the author describes new idea, theory and computations for design the new magnetic low cost accelerator for railgun projectile and space apparatus. The suggested design does not have the traditional current rails and sliding contacts. That accelerates the projectile and space apparatus by a magnetic column which can have a length of some kilometers, produces the very high acceleration and the projectile (apparatus) speed up 8 km/s.
Important advantage of the offered design is the lower (up some thousands times) used electric current of high voltage and the very high efficiency coefficient close to 1 (compared with efficiency of the current railgun equal to 20 - 40%). The suggested accelerator may be produced by present technology.
The important advantage of the offered method for space apparatus is following: The method does not need designing new rockets. What is needed is to design only a simple accelerator (accelerate platform). Any current rocket may be installed on this platform and accelerated up high speed and lifted on high altitude before started. That radically increases payload and decreases the cost of launching. The platform (force spool) and wires disconnects from the rocket after acceleration. Platform returns by parachute, the wires reel back to start.
Small cheap magnetic prototypes would be easily tested.
"Bolonkin")
1. Bolonkin A.A., Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight, Elsevier, 2006, 488 pgs.
2. Bolonkin A.A., New Concepts, Ideas and Innovations in Aerospace, Technology and Human
Sciences, NOVA, 2007, 502 pgs. http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057071, http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm
3. Bolonkin A.A., Cathcart R.B., Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology, NOVA, 2008,
537 pgs. http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057930 . http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm .
4. Bolonkin A., Magnetic Suspended AB-Structures and Immobile Space Stations,
Joint Propulsion Conference, 2-5 August 2009, Denver, CO, USA. http://www.scribd.com/doc/24051286
(Ch.13 . in the book "Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology", NOVA, 2008)
pp. 394-404. http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm .
8. Bolonkin A.A., "Space Cable Launchers", Paper No. 8057 presented at the Symposium
"The Next 100 years", Dayton, OH, USA, 14-17 July, 2003. http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm
9. Bolonkin A.A., Centrifugal Space Launcher, Presented as paper AIAA-2005-4035 at the
41st Propulsion Conference, 10-12 July 2005, Tucson, AZ, USA. http://aiaa.org,
http://www.scribd.com/doc/24056182 Ch.10.
10. Bolonkin A.A., Electrostatic Linear Engine and Cable Space AB Launcher,
Paper AIAA-2006-5229 for 42 Joint Propulsion Conference, Sacramento, USA, 9-12 July,
2006. See also AEAT Vol.78, No.2006, pp. 502-508. http://aiaa.org, http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm
http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/0807/0807.1948.pdf (12 July, 2008).
44th Joint Propulsion Conference, 20-24 July, 2008, Hartford, CT, http://aiaa.org .
#4,795,113, January 3, 1989.
21. Wikipedia. Some background material in this article is gathered from Wikipedia under the
Creative Commons license. http://wikipedia.org .
Chapter 11
Magnetic Suspended AB-Structures
and Immobile Space Stations*
Problems involving security, control, repair, and stability of the proposed towers are shortly considered. The author is prepared to discuss these and other problems with serious organizations desiring to research and develop this project.
--------------
Key words: suspended AB-structure, space tower, magnetic tower, geosynchronous tower, AB towers, motionless satellite, motionless space station.
* It has been published online 15 December 2010, in the ASCE, Journal of Aerospace
Brief History. The idea of building a tower high above the Earth into the heavens is very old [1]. The writings of the revered Moses, about 1450 BC, in Genesis, Chapter 11, refer to an early civilization that in about 2100 BC tried to build a tower to heaven out of brick and tar. This construction was called the Tower of Babel, and was reported to be located in Babylon in ancient Mesopotamia. Later in chapter 28, about 1900 BC, Jacob had a dream about a staircase or ladder built to heaven. This construction was called Jacob's Ladder. More contemporary writings on the subject date back to K.E. Tsiolkovski in his manuscript "Speculation about Earth and Sky and on Vesta," published in 1895 [2-3]. Idea of Space Elevator was suggested and developed by Russian scientist Yuri Artsutanov and was published in the Sunday supplement of newspaper "Komsomolskaya Pravda" in 1960 [4]. This idea inspired Sir Arthur Clarke to write his novel, The Fountains of Paradise, about a Space Elevator located on a fictionalized Sri Lanka, which brought the concept to the attention of the entire world [5].
At present time (2009) the highest structure is Burj Dubai (UAE) having pinnacle height of 822 m, built in 2009 and used for office, hotel, residential.
• Communication boost: A tower tens of kilometers in height near metropolitan areas could provide much higher signal strength than orbital satellites.
• Low Earth orbit (LEO) communication satellite replacement: Approximately six to ten 100-km-tall towers could provide the coverage of a LEO satellite constellation with higher power, permanence, and easy upgrade capabilities.
1. Solid towers [6]-[8]. The review of conventional solid high altitude and space towers is in [26]. The first solid space tower was proposed in [2-3]. The optimal solid towers are researched in detail in the series of works [6-8]. These works contain computation of the optimal (minimum weight) solid space towers of up to 40,000 km height. Particularly authors considered solid space tower having the rods filled by light gas as hydrogen or helium. It is shown the solid space tower from conventional material (steel, composites) can be built up to 100-200 km. The GEO tower requires structural diamond.
3. Circle (centrifugal) Space Towers Tower (Space Keeper) [16 - 17]. The installation includes: a closed-loop cable made from light, strong material (such as artificial fibers, whiskers, filaments, nanotubes, composite material) and a main engine, which rotates the cable at a fast speed in a vertical plane. The centrifugal force makes the closed-loop cable a circle. The cable circle is supported by two pairs (or more) of guide cables, which connect at one end to the cable circle by a sliding connection and at the other end to the planet's surface. The installation has a transport (delivery) system comprising the closed-loop load cables (chains), two end rollers at the top and bottom that can have medium rollers, a load engine and a load. The top end of the transport system is connected to the cable circle by a sliding connection; the lower end is connected to a load motor. The load is connected to the load cable by a sliding control connection.
The Circle tower has many variants.
5. Electrostatic Space Tower [18]-[19]. The proposed electrostatic space tower (or mast, or space elevator) is shown in [18]-[19]. That is an inflatable cylinder (tube) from strong thin dielectric film having variable radius. The film has inside a sectional thin conductive layer 9. Each section is connected with issue of control electric voltages. Interior to the tube there is electron gas from free electrons. The electron gas is separated by sections of a thin partition 11. The layer 9 has a positive charge equals to the sum of negative charges of the inside electrons. The tube (mast) can have length (height) up to Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO, about 36,000 km) or up 120,000 km (and more) as in project (see [18]-[19]). The very high tower allows launching (without spending of energy in launch stage) interplanetary space ships. The proposed optimal tower is designed so that the electron gas in any cross-section area compensates the tube weight and tube does not have compressing longitudinal force from weight. More over the tower has tensile longitudinal (lift) force, which allows the tower a vertical tension (it is held rigid and erect). When the tower has a height more than GEO, the additional centrifugal force of the rotating Earth can lift payloads or be otherwise tapped.
- -- 6. Electromagnetic Space Towers (AB-Levitron) [20]. The AB-Levitron uses two large conductive rings with very high electric current. They create intense magnetic fields. Directions of the electric currents are opposed one to the other and the rings are repelled, one from another. For obtaining enough force over a long distance, the electric current must be very strong. The current superconductive technology allows us to get very high-density electric current and enough artificial magnetic field at a great distance in space. The other type of magnetic tower (magnetic AB-column) is proposed in this article.
Description of Innovations and Problems
New type of magnetic tower (magnetic AB-column)
1. Description of Innovations. The proposed suspended magnetic structure (tower) is shown in fig. 1. That includes the long vertical loop from electric wire 1 and electric source 6 and connection 15 between the vertical wires. The electric current 2 produces the magnetic field 3 (magnetic column), the magnetic field creates the vertical 4 and horizontal 5 forces. These forces balance the film (or fiber) connection 15. Vertical force 4 supports the useful load at top of the tower and tower construction (wires and film connection).
The proposed construction creates the MAGNETIC COLUMN 3a that produces a lift force some thousands of times more than a conventional rail gun.
2) The second important innovation is the multi-stage electric loops for the high altitude magnetic tower (for example, a geosynchronous tower)(Fig. 1b).
Quadratic magnetic column. The quadratic four wire magnetic column (Fig.2) is more efficient, stable, safe, reliable and controlled than two wire magnetic column Fig.1. It can curve by remote control (by changing current in vertical wires). It is important for high altitude and geosynchronous satellites because there is a lot of debris in near Earth outer space. The wire of magnetic column must be protected from damage by space debris.
2. Cooling system of superconductive wire. The current superconductive conductor does not spend electric energy and can work for a long time period, but it requires an integral cooling system because the current superconductive materials have the critical temperature of about 100 -180 K (see Table #1 below). The wire located into Earth's atmosphere (up 70 - 100 km) needs cooling.
Fig.3. Cross-section of superconductive tube. Notations: 1 - strong tube (internal part used for cooling of ring, external part is used for superconductive layer; 2 - superconductive layer protected the insulator and heat protection; 3 - vacuum; 4 - heat impact reduction high-reflectivity screens (roll of thin bright aluminum foil); 5 - protection and heat insulation and high reflective layer, 6 - outer electric contact for control system and climber.
The wire located in space does not need any conventional cooling--defense from Sun and Earth radiations are provided by high- reflective layer or high-reflectivity screens (fig.4). However, in last case they must have parts open to outer space for radiating of its heat and support the maintaining of low ambient temperatures. For variable direction of radiation, the mechanical screen defense system may be complex. However, there are thin high reflective layer [13] Ch. 13, 3A or layer from liquid crystals that permits the automatic control of their reflectivity and transparency. The liquid crystals may be used for the space cooling system. This effect is used by new man-made glasses which grow dark in bright solar light.
Table 1. Transition temperature Tc and upper critical field B = Hc2(0) of some examined superconductors [25 ], p. 752.
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Control system. The control resistances 18 (fig.1b) located in a jumper connection can change the current i and control of the magnetic column lift force and bending moment.
Stability. If lower surface of magnetic column is horizontal, the vertical magnetic column has a automatic restored moment for any deflection from vertical. The control also can produce a bending
moment. The construction can have the guy lines (fig.1d).
The small high altitude construction (motionless satellites) can have a parachute for landing.
1. Space Elevator is not impossible at present time (2010) for the following reasons:
a) No industry production of the very strong and cheap cable material (nanotubes). Nanotubes are
very expensive (about $1000 - $ 10,000/kg) and are produced in experimental quantities. The
space elevator needs thousands of tons of cheap nanotubes.
b) Delivery of nanotubes and hundreds tons of equalizer (counterweight) in geosynchronous orbit
are very expensive (about $10,000 - 100,000/kg).
c) No climber currently exists which can get energy in a long distance (thousands km) and lifts
quickly along the cable.
d) Space Elevator costs tens of billions of the USA dollars.
2. The offer magnetic tower has following advantages:
a) That can be built from cheap ($3 - 8/kg) artificial fiber (composite material). Application of
a strong material is useful, but not necessary.
b) No need to fly in space in building period. All works are made on Earth's surface. The building
is very simple (unreeling the roll).
c) The climber gets energy from the superconductive cable, it can lift a big load (climber is
supported by a self-magnetic column) at any distance and can develop a high speed (particularly
once clear of atmosphere)
d) Magnetic tower can have any height and beused in a construction mode for other macro-
projects.
e) Cost of geosynchronous magnetic tower is about only one billion dollars.
f) Magnetic tower may be built with current technology.
Theory of Magnetic Towers
. (1)
The force from two vertical wires is
(2)
where F is magnetic force, N; n is number of wire loops at horizontal connection of one stage or climber (fig.1, #11)(in proposed spool), it may be some thousands; ?0 = 4??10-7 - magnetic constant, H/m; d is distance between centers of vertical wire, m; a is radius of wire or thickness of a conductive layer, m; b - 5 - 10; i is electric current in the vertical and single horizontal wire, A; H is magnetic intensity in V/m, B is in T; l is distance, m.
The magnetic field acts only on the lower horizontal part of the right-angled spool because the top horizontal part is far from vertical support wire (at top of installation). If spool is located between the vertical wire, the horizontal current i =I - (I - i) equals the difference of the top and lower parts of the vertical wire separated by point 18 of the connection horizontal wire (jumper) (see Fig. 1b).
The equation (2) without the spool (n = 1) is the well-known equation for the rail gun. The proposed innovation (the right-angled spool) increases the force by n times but simultaneously increases the required voltage also by n times if the installation changes its size (for example, altitude) or climber moves.
The spool also creates a strong magnetic field but this field acts only on the spool and produces tensile stress into the spool. It easy is compensated for by film, fiber or composed material.
Example: for i = 104 A, n = 103, b = 10 the force is F = 4"105 N = 40 tons. If i = 2"104 A, the F = 160 tons. If i = 105 A, the F = 4000 tons. Approximately that is the weight of a structure which can be suspended over Earth surface.
The motionless installation using superconductive wires doesn't need maintenance (hovering) energy. If installation is lifting or jumper (climber) is moving, the jumper requires input energy (electric voltage). This voltage and power are computed as below:
, (3)
where V is speed of climber or a top jumper of installation, m/s. See the example in point 10 (Climber Power). The spent energy is returned when the installation decreases its altitude or climber descents.
For given force F the required current is
, (4)
Example: For F = 3000 N, n = 103, b = 10 the i = 8.7"102 A.
, (5)
Example: for i = 104 A, d = 2 m, the force is F1 = 103 N/m = 100 kgf/m.
, (6)
Example: for the current cheap artificial fiber ? = 1800 kg/m3, ? = 2"109 N/m2 (? = 200 kgf/mm2) (see Table 3), i = 104 A the mass mf = 1.8"10-5 kg/m. That is only 2 kg on 100 km of tower height.
, (7)
where mw is mass of two electric wire of 1 m length, kg/m; ?w is specific mass of wire kg/m3; s is cross-section area of wire, m2; j is density of the electric current, A/m2.
. (8)
Example: for n = 1000, d = 1 m, ?w - 104 kg/m3 , s = 10-8 m2 the mass one spool is 0.3 kg.
, (9)
where q is linear support mass for height 1 m, kg/m; H is tower (or tower stage) height, m.
, (10)
where m is mass of installation part, kg; go = 9.81 m/s2 is Earth's acceleration; R0 = 6378 km = 6.378?106 m is Earth radius, m; R = R0 + H is radius at the located part, m; ? = 72.685"10-6 rad/sec is Earth angle speed, 1/s; g is Earth gravity (include Earth rotation) at the given altitude, m/s2. Geosynchronous orbit is Rg = 42200 km. At altitude H = 0 the Fw - mgo ,
at altitude H = Rg - R0 the Fw - 0.
, (11)
where aa is climber acceleration, m/s2. Very important fact: the proposed electric climber supports by SELF-magnetic levitation and does transfer its weight and acceleration force to the magnetic tower. That means the climber can have big mass and big acceleration. Climber gets energy from electric wire and its' power does not depend from altitude. Moreover, the climber produces (returns) the energy when one descends to Earth.
Example: for climber having mass m = 10,000 kg and an acceleration g = go the force (11) is Fc = 2?105 N and required an electric current i = 5"103 A (Eq. (4) for n = 1000, b = 10).
, (12)
Here Vmax is maximal speed, m/s; H is altitude, m.
Example: for H = 100 km, aa = 10 m/s2 the trip time is t = 200 sec, Vmax = 103 m/s; for H = 37,000 km (geosynchronous orbit), the t - 3 hours 20 min, Vmax =6.1"104 m/s.
, (13)
where U is voltage, V; V is climber speed, m/s; P is power, W. The rest nomenclature is same Eq. (2).
Example: For mass of climber m = 10 tons, the electric current i = 5"103 A, n = 1000, b = 10, maximal velocity Vmax = 103 m/s the maximum voltage is Umax = 2?104 V; maximal electric power is Pmax = = 108 W. From other side P = FV= 105"103=108 W.
(14)
where H is tower height, m. The rest nomenclature is same with Eq. (2).
Example: For I = 104 A, b = 10, H = 100 km, the Li = 0.66 H, Ei = 3.3?107 J. For H = 37,000 km the Li = 244 H, Ei = 1.22?1010 J. This energy will be returned in re-rolling of magnetic tower (lowering it, for example for maintenance or during bad meteor storms, close asteroid flybys, space junk intersect alerts)
, (15)
Example: For I = 104 A and tube (wire) rw = 0.001 m the Bw - 2 T; for spool rs = 1 m, I = 103 A and number of coil revolution n = 1000 the Bs = 2? = 6.28 T. Both values are less 100 - 250 T safety for superconductive conductor (see Table 1).
The specific magnetic pressure in the wire and spool are
. (16)
Example: For I = 104 A, tube rw = 0.01 m and Bw - 0.2 T the p = 1.5?104 N/m2 = 0.15 atm; for spool rs = 1 m, number of coil revolution n = 1000, Bs = 2? = 6.28 T the p = 3.14?105 N/m2 = 3.14 atm.
- -- Equation of heat balance of a body in vacuum (space)
, (17)
, (18)
, (19)
where F2 is area of the outer cylinder, m2; F1 is area of internal cylinder, m2.
When we use a vacuum and row (n) of the thin screens, the heat flow is
, (20)
is coerced coefficient of heat transfer between wire and the nearest screen, Ca is coerced coefficient of heat transfer between two near by screens; n is number of additional screen (revolutions of vacuumed thin foil around central superconductive wire).
, n = 1, ? = 0.05, T1 = 288 K (15 C, average Earth temperature), T2 = 77.3 K (liquid nitrogen) we have the qn = 5.7 W/m2.
Expense of cooling liquid and power for converting back the vapor into cooling liquid are
, (21)
The 100 km atmospheric part of tower (Example above) requires approximately 4 tons of liquid nitrogen in one day. If we take more additional screens (n > 1), the required cooling is decreased.
- -- When we use the conventional heat protection, the heat flow is computed by equations
, (22)
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- -- Experimental nanotubes CNT (carbon nanotubes) have a tensile strength of 200 Giga-Pascals (20,000 kg/mm2). Theoretical limit of nanotubes is 30,000 kg/mm2. Young's modulus exceeds a Tera Pascal, specific density ? = 1800 kg/m3 (1.8 g/cc) (year 2000).
- -- For whiskers CD ? = 8000 kg/mm2, ? = 3500 kg/m3 (1989) [27, p. 33]. Cost about $400/kg (2001).
- -- For industrial fibers ? = 500 - 600 kg/mm2, ? = 1800 kg/m3, ?/? = 2,78в106. Cost about 2 - 5 $/kg (2003).
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, (23)
For equilibrium the voltage U between the vertical wires and consumed power P must be
.
Example: For I = 103 A, b = 3 the U = 1.8"105 V and P = 1.8"105 kW. That value is big and this method of compensation is less suitable.
Projects
That way muc data it is given without detailed explanation. Our design is not optimal but merely for estimation of the main data.
1. Motionless 100 km Suspended Magnetic AB-satellite (AB-Magnetic Tower)
Lift Force and repulsive force. For I = 104 A, n = 103, b = 10 the lift force is F = 4"105 N = 40 tons (Eq. (5)). If I = 2?104 A, the lift force will be 160 tons. For d = 2 m, the repulse force between the vertical wire is F3 = 10 N/m = 1 kgf/m (Eq. (5)).
Mass of film. For the current cheap artificial fiber having ? = 1800 kg/m3, safety ? = 2"109 N/m2 (? = 200 kgf/mm2) (see Table 3), I = 104 A the film (horizontal fiber) mass mf - 2"10-5 kg/m (Eq. (6)). That is only 2 kg for 100 km of tower height.
For specific linear density of double support and cooling cables q = 0.05 kg/m and H = 105 m = 100 km the support mass is 5 tons. This mass includes the tube cooling system by nitrogen (nitrogen does not need support). We need cooling tubes only until the altitude 70 - 100 km. Over this altitude no conventional (to air) heat transfer practically occurs and the cooling super reflective layer has q - 0.002 kg/m or 200 kg per 100 km.
Climber. For climber having mass m = 10,000 kg and an acceleration g = go (1 G vertical) the force (11) is Fc = 2?105 N and requires an electric current i = 5"103 A (Eq. (2) for n = 1000, b = 10). For altitude H = 100 km, acceleration aa = 10 m/s2 the trip time is t = 200 sec, Vmax = 103 m/s. For mass of climber m = 10 tons, the electric current i = 5"103 A, n = 1000, b = 10, maximal velocity Vmax = 103 m/s the maximum voltage is Emax = 2?104 V; maximal electric power is Nmax = 108 W. This power drain may be greatly reduced by accepting less rocket like accelerations, at the expense of less throughput and longer transit times. It is noteworthy, however, that by using high G forces at less than geostationary heights, in effect we have a `mass driver' of the G.K. O'Neill sort, that can send (for example) lunar landers to escape velocity, and then slow down the `bucket' (climber) for recovery and relaunch. This is one way to support a massive space program.
Cooling consumption for support of the superconductive wire in lower (up 100 km) atmospheric part of magnetic tower is about 2 - 4 tons of liquid nitrogen in one day.
Summary. As you see the suggested 100 km magnetic tower (suspended or levitated space station) can keep 34 tons (and in beefed up versions up to 155 tons and more) useful load and has mass of 5022 kg. If this 100 km section is located in vacuum space (over altitude 100 km) it does not need active cooling and has mass of only 222 kg.
2. Geosynchronous Magnetic AB-Satellite (AB-Tower)
In previous computation we compute that the atmospheric stage has mass mo = 5022 kg and space stage has mi = 222 kg. Let us take for reliability mo = 6000 kg and mi = 300 kg then total mass of the geosynchronous magnetic tower will be M = mo + ? mi = 16800 kg.
Conclusion
The same idea may be used in space railgun [27] and space magnetic AB-Launcher without rails, in the suspended structures for communication and so on. The magnetic column may be applied to the suspending houses, buildings, towns, multi-floor cities, to a small state located over ocean in international waters, to the motionless (geostationary or levitating) space stations, to the communication masts and towers. The may be easily tested in small cheap magnetic prototypes with easily available materials on the ground before building the actual article with superconductors . And the entire assembly can be built on Earth, unlike `conventional' space elevators, for much cheaper deployment.
Grezi o zemle i nebe (in Russian), Academy of Sciences, USSR., Moscow, p. 35, 1999.
27 Sept.,2006, Wichita, Kansas, USA, http://arxiv.org/ftp/physics/papers/0701/0701093.pdf .
See also paper AIAA-2006-4235 by A. Bolonkin. http://aiaa.org search "Bolonkin".
10035-02, 34th Scientific Assembly of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR). The Wold Space Congress - 2002, 10 -19 Oct. 2002, Houston, Texas, USA. http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm
Towers", pp.83-106; http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm, http://www.scribd.com/doc/24056182
"Artificial Mountains", pp. 299-334, NOVA, 2008. http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm,
http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057930
See also "Optimal Electrostatic Space Tower" in: http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/0704/0704.3466.pdf .
http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm .
http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm, http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057930
24. Bolonkin A., Krinker M., Magnetic Space Launcher. Presented as paper AIAA-2009-5261 to 45th AIAA
Joint Propulsion Conference, 2-5 August 2009, Denver, CO, USA. http://www.scribd.com/doc/24051286
25. AIP. Physics Desk References, 3-rd Edition. Springer. 2003.
Future suspended structur
Magnetic levitation transport
Current suspended structures
Possible suspended structure in space
Chapter 12
Artificial Explosion of Sun
and AB-Criterion for Solar Detonation
Abstract
This reaction runs slowly within the Sun because its temperature is low (relative to the needs of nuclear reactions). If we create higher temperature and density in a limited region of the solar interior, we may be able to produce self-supporting detonation thermonuclear reactions that spread to the full solar volume. This is analogous to the triggering mechanisms in a thermonuclear bomb. Conditions within the bomb can be optimized in a small area to initiate ignition, then spread to a larger area, allowing producing a hydrogen bomb of any power. In the case of the Sun certain targeting practices may greatly increase the chances of an artificial explosion of the Sun. This explosion would annihilate the Earth and the Solar System, as we know them today.
* This work is written together J. Friedlander. He corrected the author's English, wrote together with author Abstract, Sections 8, 10 ("Penetration into Sun" and "Results"), and wrote Section 11 "Discussion" as the solo author.
1. Introduction
The Sun is composed of hydrogen (about 74% of its mass, or 92% of its volume), helium (about 25% of mass, 7% of volume), and trace quantities of other elements. The Sun has a spectral class of G2V. G2 implies that it has a surface temperature of approximately 5,500 K (or approximately 9,600 degrees Fahrenheit / 5,315 Celsius).
Fig.1. Structure of Sun
The Sun is about halfway through its main-sequence evolution, during which nuclear fusion reactions in its core fuse hydrogen into helium. Each second, more than 4 million tonnes of matter are converted into energy within the Sun's core, producing neutrinos and solar radiation; at this rate, the sun will have so far converted around 100 earth-masses of matter into energy. The Sun will spend a total of approximately 10 billion years as a main sequence star.
The core of the Sun is considered to extend from the center to about 0.2 solar radii. It has a density of up to 150,000 kg/m3 (150 times the density of water on Earth) and a temperature of close to 13,600,000 kelvins (by contrast, the surface of the Sun is close to 5,785 kelvins (1/2350th of the core)). Through most of the Sun's life, energy is produced by nuclear fusion through a series of steps called the p-p (proton-proton) chain; this process converts hydrogen into helium. The core is the only location in the Sun that produces an appreciable amount of heat via fusion: the rest of the star is heated by energy that is transferred outward from the core. All of the energy produced by fusion in the core must travel through many successive layers to the solar photosphere before it escapes into space as sunlight or kinetic energy of particles.
About 3.4в1038 protons (hydrogen nuclei) are converted into helium nuclei every second (out of about ~8.9в1056 total amount of free protons in Sun), releasing energy at the matter-energy conversion rate of 4.26 million tonnes per second, 383 yottawatts (383в1024 W) or 9.15в1010 megatons of TNT per second. This corresponds to extremely low rate of energy production in the Sun's core - about 0.3 ?W/cmЁ, or about 6 ?W/kg. For comparison, an ordinary candle produces heat at the rate 1 W/cmЁ, and human body - at the rate of 1.2 W/kg. Use of plasma with similar parameters as solar interior plasma for energy production on Earth is completely impractical - as even a modest 1 GW fusion power plant would require about 170 billion tonnes of plasma occupying almost one cubic mile. Thus all terrestrial fusion reactors require much higher plasma temperatures than those in Sun's interior to be viable.
The rate of nuclear fusion depends strongly on density (and particularly on temperature), so the fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and expand slightly against the weight of the outer layers, reducing the fusion rate and correcting the perturbation; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present level.
The high-energy photons (gamma and X-rays) released in fusion reactions are absorbed in only few millimeters of solar plasma and then re-emitted again in random direction (and at slightly lower energy) - so it takes a long time for radiation to reach the Sun's surface. Estimates of the "photon travel time" range from as much as 50 million years to as little as 17,000 years. After a final trip through the convective outer layer to the transparent "surface" of the photosphere, the photons escape as visible light. Each gamma ray in the Sun's core is converted into several million visible light photons before escaping into space. Neutrinos are also released by the fusion reactions in the core, but unlike photons they very rarely interact with matter, so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately.
This reaction is very slowly because the solar temperatute is very lower of Coulomb barrier.
The Sun's current age, determined using computer models of stellar evolution and nucleocosmochronology, is thought to be about 4.57 billion years.
Astronomers estimate that there are at least 70 sextillion (7в1022) stars in the observable universe. That is 230 billion times as many as the 300 billion in the Milky Way.
Atmosphere of Sun. The parts of the Sun above the photosphere are referred to collectively as the solar atmosphere. They can be viewed with telescopes operating across the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio through visible light to gamma rays, and comprise five principal zones: the temperature minimum, the chromosphere, the transition region, the corona, and the heliosphere.
The chromosphere, transition region, and corona are much hotter than the surface of the Sun; the reason why is not yet known. But their density is low.
The coolest layer of the Sun is a temperature minimum region about 500 km above the photosphere, with a temperature of about 4,000 K.
Above the temperature minimum layer is a thin layer about 2,000 km thick, dominated by a spectrum of emission and absorption lines. It is called the chromosphere from the Greek root chroma, meaning color, because the chromosphere is visible as a colored flash at the beginning and end of total eclipses of the Sun. The temperature in the chromosphere increases gradually with altitude, ranging up to around 100,000 K near the top.
Above the chromosphere is a transition region in which the temperature rises rapidly from around 100,000 K to coronal temperatures closer to one million K. The increase is because of a phase transition as helium within the region becomes fully ionized by the high temperatures. The transition region does not occur at a well-defined altitude. Rather, it forms a kind of nimbus around chromospheric features such as spicules and filaments, and is in constant, chaotic motion. The transition region is not easily visible from Earth's surface, but is readily observable from space by instruments sensitive to the far ultraviolet portion of the spectrum.
The corona is the extended outer atmosphere of the Sun, which is much larger in volume than the Sun itself. The corona merges smoothly with the solar wind that fills the solar system and heliosphere. The low corona, which is very near the surface of the Sun, has a particle density of 1014 m--3-1016 m--3. (Earth's atmosphere near sea level has a particle density of about 2в1025 m--3.) The temperature of the corona is several million kelvin. While no complete theory yet exists to account for the temperature of the corona, at least some of its heat is known to be from magnetic reconnection.
Physical characteristics of Sun: Mean diameter is 1.392в106 km (109 Earths). Volume is 1.41в1018 kmЁ (1,300,000 Earths). Mass is 1.988?435в1030 kg (332,946 Earths). Average density is 1,408 kg/mЁ. Surface temperature is 5785 K (0.5 eV). Temperature of corona is 5 MK (0.43 keV). Core temperature is ~13.6 MK (1.18 keV). Sun radius is R = 696в103 km, solar gravity gc = 274 m/s2. Photospheric composition of Sun (by mass): Hydrogen 73.46 %; Helium 24.85 %; Oxygen 0.77 %; Carbon 0.29 %; Iron 0.16 %; Sulphur 0.12 %; Neon 0.12 %; Nitrogen 0.09 %; Silicon 0.07 %; Magnesium 0.05 %.
Sun photosphere has thickness about 7в10-4 R (490 km) of Sun radius R, average temperature 5.4в103 K, and average density 2в10-7 g/cm3 (n = 1.2в1023 m-3). Sun convection zone has thickness about 0.15 R, average temperature 0.25в106 K, and average density 5в10-7 g/cm3 . Sun intermediate (radiation) zone has thickness about 0.6 R, average temperature 4в106 K, and average density 10 g/cm3 . Sun core has thickness about 0.25 R, average temperature 11в106 K, and average density 89 g/cm3 .
Detonation is a process of combustion in which a supersonic shock wave is propagated through a fluid due to an energy release in a reaction zone. This self-sustained detonation wave is different from a deflagration, which propagates at a subsonic rate (i.e., slower than the sound speed in the material itself).
Detonations can be produced by explosives, reactive gaseous mixtures, certain dusts and aerosols.
The simplest theory to predict the behavior of detonations in gases is known as Chapman-Jouguet (CJ) theory, developed around the turn of the 20th century. This theory, described by a relatively simple set of algebraic equations, models the detonation as a propagating shock wave accompanied by exothermic heat release. Such a theory confines the chemistry and diffusive transport processes to an infinitely thin zone.
A more complex theory was advanced during World War II independently by Zel'dovich, von Neumann, and Doering. This theory, now known as ZND theory, admits finite-rate chemical reactions and thus describes a detonation as an infinitely thin shock wave followed by a zone of exothermic chemical reaction. In the reference frame in which the shock is stationary, the flow following the shock is subsonic. Because of this, energy release behind the shock is able to be transported acoustically to the shock for its support. For a self-propagating detonation, the shock relaxes to a speed given by the Chapman-Jouguet condition, which induces the material at the end of the reaction zone to have a locally sonic speed in the reference frame in which the shock is stationary. In effect, all of the chemical energy is harnessed to propagate the shock wave forward.
Both CJ and ZND theories are one-dimensional and steady. However, in the 1960s experiments revealed that gas-phase detonations were most often characterized by unsteady, three-dimensional structures, which can only in an averaged sense be predicted by one-dimensional steady theories. Modern computations are presently making progress in predicting these complex flow fields. Many features can be qualitatively predicted, but the multi-scale nature of the problem makes detailed quantitative predictions very difficult.
The present solar temperature is far lower than needed for propagating a runaway thermonuclear reaction. In Sun core the temperature is only ~13.6 MK (0.0012 MeV). The Coulomb barrier for protons (hydrogen) is more then 0.4 MeV. Only very small proportions of core protons take part in the thermonuclear reaction (they use a tunnelling effect). Their energy is in balance with energy emitted by Sun for the Sun surface temperature 5785 K (0.5 eV).
3. Theory and estimations
- -- Coulomb barrier (repulsion). Energy is needed for thermonuclear reaction may be computed by equations
, (1)
Table 1. Columb barrier of some nuclei pairs.
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. (2)
- -- The energy of a nuclear reaction. The energy and momentum conservation laws define the energetic relationships for a nuclear reaction [1]-[2].
, (3)
Q is the reaction energy.
. (4)
Kinetic energy may be released during the course of a reaction (exothermic reaction) or kinetic energy may have to be supplied for the reaction to take place (endothermic reaction). This can be calculated by reference to a table of very accurate particle rest masses (see http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/Compositions/index.html). The reaction energy (the "Q-value") is positive for exothermal reactions and negative for endothermal reactions.
, (5)
, (6)
The binding energy per nucleon of the helium-4 nucleus is unusually high, because the He-4 nucleus is doubly magic. (The He-4 nucleus is unusually stable and tightly-bound for the same reason that the helium atom is inert: each pair of protons and neutrons in He-4 occupies a filled 1s nuclear orbital in the same way that the pair of electrons in the helium atom occupies a filled 1s electron orbital). Consequently, alpha particles appear frequently on the right hand side of nuclear reactions.
The energy released in a nuclear reaction can appear mainly in one of three ways:
If the reaction equation is balanced, that does not mean that the reaction really occurs. The rate at which reactions occur depends on the particle energy, the particle flux and the reaction cross section.
In the initial collision which begins the reaction, the particles must approach closely enough so that the short range strong force can affect them. As most common nuclear particles are positively charged, this means they must overcome considerable electrostatic repulsion before the reaction can begin. Even if the target nucleus is part of a neutral atom, the other particle must penetrate well beyond the electron cloud and closely approach the nucleus, which is positively charged. Thus, such particles must be first accelerated to high energy, for example by very high temperatures, on the order of millions of degrees, producing thermonuclear reactions
Also, since the force of repulsion is proportional to the product of the two charges, reactions between heavy nuclei are rarer, and require higher initiating energy, than those between a heavy and light nucleus; while reactions between two light nuclei are commoner still.
Neutrons, on the other hand, have no electric charge to cause repulsion, and are able to effect a nuclear reaction at very low energies. In fact at extremely low particle energies (corresponding, say, to thermal equilibrium at room temperature), the neutron's de Broglie wavelength is greatly increased, possibly greatly increasing its capture cross section, at energies close to resonances of the nuclei involved. Thus low energy neutrons may be even more reactive than high energy neutrons.
Table 2. Exothermic thermonuclear reactions.
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, (7)
, (8)
via plasma temperature for D-T (top), D-D (middle) and D-3He
The terminal velocity of the reaction components (electron and ions) are
, (9)
, (10)
The sound velocity of ions is
, (11)
where ? - (1.2 ¤ 1.4) is adiabatic coefficient; z is number of charge (z = 1 for p), Tk is plasma temperature in K; mi is mass of ion.
The deep of penetration of outer radiation into plasma is
In internal plasma detonation there is no loss in radiation because the plasma reflects the radiation.
The Sun mass is ~74% hydrogen and 25% helium.
proton chain reaction, CNO cycle, Triple-alpha process, Carbon burning process, Neon burning process, Oxygen burning process, Silicon burning process.
For our case of particular interest (a most probable candidate) the proton-proton chain reaction. It is more exactly the reaction p + p.
The first step involves the fusion of two hydrogen nuclei 1H (protons) into deuterium 2H, releasing a positron and a neutrino as one proton changes into a neutron.
The positron immediately annihilates with an electron, and their mass energy is carried off by two gamma ray photons.
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The pp III chain is not a major source of energy in the Sun (only 0.11%), but was very important in the solar neutrino problem because it generates very high energy neutrinos (up to 14.06 MeV).
Comparing the mass of the final helium-4 atom with the masses of the four protons reveals that 0.007 or 0.7% of the mass of the original protons has been lost. This mass has been converted into energy, in the form of gamma rays and neutrinos released during each of the individual reactions.
The total energy we get in one whole chain is
This creates a situation in which stellar nucleosynthesis produces large amounts of carbon and oxygen but only a small fraction of these elements is converted into neon and heavier elements. Both oxygen and carbon make up the ash of helium burning. Those nuclear resonances sensitively are arranged to create large amounts of carbon and oxygen, has been controversially cited as evidence of the anthropic principle.
About 34% of this energy is carried away by neutrinos. That reaction is part of solar reaction, but if initial temperature is high, the reaction becomes an explosion.
The detonation wave works a short time. That supports the reactions (12) - (13). They produce energy up to 1.44 MeV. The reactions (12) - (14) produce energy up to 5.8 MeV. But after detonation wave and the full range of reactions the temperature of plasma is more than the temperature needed to pass the Coulomb barrier and the energy of explosion increases by 20 times.
, (15)
where D - speed of detonation, m/s; v - speed of ion sound, m/s about the front of detonation wave (eq.(11)); V1, V3 specific density of plasma in points 1, 3 respectively, kg/m3.
, (16)
where p1, p3 are pressures, N/m2, in point 1, 3 respectively.
3) Law of energy
, (17)
nuclear energy, J/kg.
4) Speed of detonation is
, (18)
? - 1.2 ¤ 1.4 is adiabatic coefficient.
Fig. 3. Pressure in detonation wave. I - plasma, II - front of detonation wave, III - zone of the initial thermonuclear fusion reaction, IV - products of reaction and next reaction, po - initial pressure, x - distance.
7. AB-Criterion for Solar Detonation
. (19)
Here Q is a nuclear specific heat [J/kg], ? = 1.2 ¤ 1.4 is adiabatic coefficient (they are noted in (17)-(18)); z is number of the charge of particle after fusion reaction (z =1 for 2H) , k = 1.36в10-23 is Boltzmann constant, J/K; Tk is temperature of plasma after fusion reaction in Kelvin degrees; mi = ?mp is mass of ion after fusion reaction, kg; mp = 1.67в10-27 kg is mass of proton; ? is relative mass, ? =2 for 2H.
When we have sign ">" the power of the detonation wave increases, when we have the sign "<" it decreases.
, (20)
From (20) we get the AB-Criterion for artificial Sun explosion:
, (21)
where Te is temperature of plasma after reaction in eV.
,
where Ech is energy of reaction in keV, kB is Boltzmann constant.
The offered AB-Criterion contains the ? adiabatic coefficient and z - number of electric charge in the electron charges. It is not surprising because Lawson derived his criterion from the condition where the energy of the reaction must be greater than the loss of energy by plasma into the reactor walls, where
Wreaction > Wloss .
In our case no the reactor walls and plasma reflects the any radiation.
D > v .
For main reaction p + p the AB-Criterion (21) has a form
. (21a)
Estimation. Let us take the first step of the reaction 1H + 1H (12)-(13) having in point 3 (fig.2) Te = 105 eV, E - 1.44в106 eV, <?v> - в10-22. Substituting them in equation (21) we receive
The Sun surface (photosphere) has density n = 1023 1/m3, the encounter time of protons in the hypothetical detonation wave III (fig.2) may be over 0.01 sec. The values in left and right sides of (22) have the same order. That means a thermonuclear bomb exploded within the Sun may convceivably be able to serve as a detonator which produces a self-supported nuclear reaction and initiates the artificial explosion of the Sun.
A more accurate computation is possible but will require cooperation of an interested supercomputer team with the author, or independent investigations with similar interests.
The Sun is a ball of plasma (ionized gases), not a solid body. A properly shielded thermonuclear bomb can permeate deep into the Sun. The warhead may be protected on its' way down by a special high reflectivity mirror offered, among others, by author A.A. Bolonkin in 1983 [12] and described in [7] Chapters 12, 3A, [8] Ch.5, [9]-[12]. This mirror allows to maintain a low temperature of the warhead up to the very boundary of the solar photosphere. At that point its' velocity is gigantic, about 617.6 km/s, assuring a rapid penetration for as far as it goes.
, (23)
where ns - 1023 1/m3 is the plasma density on the photosphere surface; h is deep, km; R = 696в103 is solar radius, km. At a solar interior depth of h = 0,5R the relative density is greater by 27 thousand times than on the Sun's surface.
v - 102T0.5 m/s = 106 m/s . (24)
. (25)
The requested power of the nuclear bomb for heating this mass for temperature T = 104 eV (100 K million degrees) is approximately
E = 103в104/1.67в10-27 eV - 0.6"1034 eV - 2"1015 J - 0.5 Mt . (26)
The requested power of nuclear bomb is about 0.5 Megatons. The average power of the current thermonuclear bomb is 5 - 10 Mt. That means the current thermonuclear bomb may be used as a fuse of Sun explosion. That estimation needs in a more complex computation by a power computer.
10. Results of research
The p-p reaction runs slowly within the Sun because its temperature is low (relative to the temperatures of nuclear reactions). If we create higher temperature and density in a limited region of the solar interior, we may be able to produce self-supporting, more rapid detonation thermonuclear reactions that may spread to the full solar volume. This is analogous to the triggering mechanisms in a thermonuclear bomb. Conditions within the bomb can be optimized in a small area to initiate ignition, build a spreading reaction and then feed it into a larger area, allowing producing a `solar hydrogen bomb' of any power--but not necessarily one whose power can be limited. In the case of the Sun certain targeting practices may greatly increase the chances of an artificial explosion of the entire Sun. This explosion would annihilate the Earth and the Solar System, as we know them today.
The temperature and pressure in this solar plasma may achieve a temperature that rises to billions of degrees in which all thermonuclear reactions are accelerated by many thousands of times. This power output would further heat the solar plasma. Further increasing of the plasma temperature would, in the worst case, climax in a solar explosion.
The possibility of initial ignition of the Sun significantly increases if the thermonuclear bomb is exploded under the solar photosphere surface. The incoming bomb has a diving speed near the Sun of about 617 km/sec. Warhead protection to various depths may be feasible -ablative cooling which evaporates and protects the warhead some minutes from the solar temperatures. The deeper the penetration before detonation the temperature and density achieved greatly increase the probability of beginning thermonuclear reactions which can achieve explosive breakout from the current stable solar condition.
The author A.A. Bolonkin originated the AB Criterion, which allows estimating the condition required for the artificial explosion of the Sun.
Fig. 5. Sun explosion. Result on the Earth.
A satellite system near Earth for destroying the rockets moving to the Sun may be a better solution, but with more complications, especially since it would by definition also constitute an effective missile defense and space blockade. Its' very presence may help spark a war. Or if only partially complete but under construction, it may invite preemption, perhaps on the insane scale that we here discuss...
The first information about this work was published in [15]. This work produced the active Internet discussion in [19]. Among the raised questions were the following:
12. Summary
(The reader find some author's works in http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm, http://www.scribd.com search "Bolonkin; http://Arxiv.org Search: "Bolonkin", in http://aiaa.org search "Bolonkin" and books: Bolonkin A.A., "Non-Rocket Space Launch and flight", Elsevier, 2006, 488 pgs.; Bolonkin A.A., "New Concepts, ideas, and Innovations in Technology and Human life", NOVA, 2008, 502 pg.; Bolonkin A.A., Cathcart R.B., "Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology", NOVA, 2009, 536 pgs).
- -- AIP Physics desk reference, 3rd Ed., Spring, 888 pgs.
- -- Handbook of Physical Quantities, Ed. Igor Grigoriev, CRC Press, 1997, USA.
- -- I.K. Kikoin (Ed.), Tables of physical values, Atomizdat, Moscow, 1975, 1006 pgs, (in Russian).
- -- Nishikawa K., Wakatani M., Plasma Physics, Spring, 2000.
- -- Bolonkin A.A., New AB-Thermonuclear Reactor for Aerospace, Presented as AIAA-2006-7225 to Space-2006 Conference, 19-21 September, 2006, San Jose, CA, USA (see also http://arxiv.org search "Bolonkin"). http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/0706/0706.2182.pdf ,
- -- Bolonkin A.A., Simplest AB-Thermonuclear Space Propulsion and Electric Generator,
- -- Bolonkin A.A., "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier, 2006, 488 pgs. http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm , or http://www.scribd.com/doc/24056182 . The book contains theories of the more then 20 new revolutionary author ideas in space and technology.
- --
Bolonkin A.A., New concepts, ideas and innovations in aerospace and technology, Nova, 2007.
The book contains theories of the more then 20 new revolutionary author ideas in space and technology. http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm , or http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057071 . - -- Bolonkin A.A., Cathcart R.B., "Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology", NOVA, 2009, 536 pgs. http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm . http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057930 . Book contains many new revolutionary ideas and projects.
- -- Bolonkin A.A., High Speed AB Solar Sail. This work is presented as paper AIAA-2006-4806 for 42 Joint Propulsion Conference, Sacramento, USA, 9-12 July, 2006, USA (see also http://arxiv.org search "Bolonkin").http://arxiv.org/ftp/physics/papers/0701/0701073.pdf .
- -- Bolonkin A.A., Light Multi-reflex Engine, Journal of British Interplanetary Society, Vol 57, No.9/10, 2004, pp. 353-359.
(in Russian).
- -- Wikipedia. Some background material in this article is gathered from Wikipedia under the Creative Commons license. http://wikipedia.org .
- -- Solar Physics Group at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center website for solar facts http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/
- -- Wdowczyk J and Wolfendale A W, Cosmic rays and ancient catastrophes, Nature, 268 (1977) 510. Abstract available at: http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v268/n5620/abs/268510a0.html
Possible form of the sun explosion apparatus (credit NASA)
Chapter 13
Review of New Concepts, Ideas and Innovations in
Space Towers*
A lot of new concepts, ideas and innovation in space towers were offered, developed and researched in last years especially after 2000. For example: optimal solid space towers, inflatable space towers (include optimal space tower), circle and centrifugal space towers, kinetic space towers, electrostatic space towers, electromagnetic space towers, and so on.
Given review shortly summarizes there researches and gives a brief description them, note some their main advantages, shortcomings, defects and limitations.
Key words: Space tower, optimal space mast, inflatable space tower, kinetic space tower, electrostatic space tower,
magnetic space tower.
The CN Tower in Toronto, Canada, standing at 553.3 m (1,815 ft), was formerly the world's tallest completed freestanding structure on land. Opened in 1976, it was surpassed in height by the rising Burj Khalifa on 12 September 2007. It has the world's second highest public observation deck at 446.5 m (1,465 ft).
Burj Khalifa broke the height record in all four categories for completed buildings by a wide margin. The Shanghai World Financial Center had the world's highest roof, highest occupied floor, and the world's highest public observation deck at 474.2 m (1,556 ft). It retains the latter record, as Burj Khalifa's official observation deck will be at 442 m (1,450 ft).
Current materials make it possible even today to construct towers many kilometers in height. However, conventional towers are very expensive, costing tens of billions of dollars. When considering how high a tower can be built, it is important to remember that it can be built to many kilometers of height if the base is large enough.
• Low Earth orbit (LEO) communication satellite replacement: Approximately six to ten 100-km-tall towers could provide the coverage of a LEO satellite constellation with higher power, permanence, and easy upgrade capabilities.
The computation of the optimal solid space towers presented in [6-8] give the following results:
Project 1. Steel tower 100 km height. The optimal steel tower (mast) having the height 100 km, safety pressure stress K = 0.02 (158 kg/mm2)(K is ratio pressure stress to density of material divided by 107) must have the bottom cross-section area approximately in 100 times more then top cross-section area and weight is 135 times more then top load. For example, if full top load equals 100 tons (30 tons support extension cable + 70 tons useful load), the total weight of main columns 100 km tower-mast (without extension cable) will be 13,500 tons. It is less that a weight of current sky-scrapers (compare with 3,000,000 tons of Toronto tower having the 553 m height). In reality if the safety stress coefficient K = 0.015, the relative cross-section area and weight will sometimes be more but it is a possibility of current building technology.
If we add light internal partitions, the total cover weight will be about 16 - 18 tons (compared to 3 million tons for the 553 m tower in Toronto). Maximum safe bending moment versus altitude ranges from 390 tonвmeter (at the base) to 210 tonвmeter at the tower top.
Fig. 1. Inflatable tower.
Notations: 1 - Inflatable column, 2 - observation desk, 3 - load cable elevator, 4 - passenger cabin, 5 - expansion, 6 - engine, 7 - radio and TV antenna, 8 - rollers of cable transport system, 9 - control.
Fig.2. Section of inflatable tower. Notations: 10 - horizontal film partitions; 11 - light second film (internal cover); 12 - air balls-- special devices like floating balloons to track leaks (will migrate to leak site and will temporarily seal a hole); 13 - entrance line of compression air and pressure control; 14 - exit line of air and control; 15 - control laser beam; 16 - sensors of laser beam location; 17 - control cables and devices; 18 - section volume.
Project 1. Space Station for Tourists or a Scientific Laboratory at an Altitude of 140 km (Figs.4).The closed-loop cable is a semi-circle. The radius of the circle is 150 km. The space station is a cabin with a weight of 4 tons (9000 lb) at an altitude of 150 km (94 miles). This altitude is 140 km under load.
- -- The first variant has a cable diameter of 1.13 mm (0.045 inches) and a general cable weight of 1696 kg (3658 lb). It needs a power (engine) station to provide from 102 to a maximum of 146 MW (the maximum amount is needed for additional research).
- -- The second variant needs the engine power from 49 to 76 MW.
- -- The third variant uses a cable with tensile strength near that of current fibers. The cable has a diameter of 11.3 mm (0.45 inches) and a weight of 170 tons. It needs an engine to provide from 83.5 to 117 MW.
The installation includes (see notations in Fig.5): a strong closed-loop cable, rollers, any conventional engine, a space station (top platform), a load elevator, and support stabilization cables (expansions).
Fig.5. a. Offered kinetic tower: 1 - mobile closed loop cable, 2 - top roller of the tower, 3 - bottom roller of the tower, 4 - engine, 5 - space station, 6 - elevator, 7 - load cabin, 8 - tensile element (stabilizing rope).
b. Design of top roller.
The safety speed of the cable spool is same with the safety speed of cable because the spool operates as a free roller. The conventional rollers made from the composite cable material have same safety speed with cable. The suggested spool is an innovation because it is made only from cable (no core) and it allows reeling up and unreeling simultaneously with different speed. That is necessary for change the tower altitude.
The special stress is k = ??? = 106 m2/s2 (K = k/107 = 0.1), safe cable speed is V = k0.5 = 1000 m/s, the cable cross-section area is S = ?d2/4 = 78.5 mm2, useful lift force is F = 2S?(k-gH) = 27.13 tons. Requested engine power is P = 16 MW (Eq. (10), [15]), cable mass is M = 2S?H = 2.78.5.10-6 .1800.4000 = 1130 kg.
- -- Electrostatic AB tower (mast) may be built from Earth's surface without rockets. That decreases the cost of electrostatic mast in thousands times.
- -- One can have any height and has a big control load capacity.
- -- In particle, electrostatic tower can have the height of a geosynchronous orbit (37,000 km) WITHOUT the additional continue the space elevator (up 120,000 ? 160,000 km) and counterweight (equalizer) of hundreds tons.
- -- The offered mast has less the total mass in tens of times then conventional space elevator.
- -- The offered mast can be built from lesser strong material then space elevator cable (comprise the computation here and in [13] Ch.1).
- -- The offered tower can have the high speed electrostatic climbers moved by high voltage electricity from Earth's surface.
- -- The offered tower is more safety against meteorite then cable space elevator, because the small meteorite damaged the cable is crash for space elevator, but it is only create small hole in electrostatic tower. The electron escape may be compensated by electron injection.
- -- The electrostatic mast can bend in need direction when we give the electric voltage in need parts of the mast.
- -- Air dirigible. (1) The airship from the thin film filled by an electron gas has 30% more lift force then conventional dirigible filled by helium. (2) Electron dirigible is significantly cheaper then same helium dirigible because the helium is very expensive gas. (3) One does not have problem with changing the lift force because no problem to add or to delete the electrons.
- -- Long arm. The offered electron control tube can be used as long control work arm for taking the model of planet ground, rescue operation, repairing of other space ships and so on [13] Ch.9.
- -- Superconductive or closed to superconductive tubes. The offered AB-tube must have a very low electric resistance for any temperature because the electrons into tube to not have ions and do not loss energy for impacts with ions. The impact the electron to electron does not change the total impulse (momentum) of couple electrons and electron flow. If this idea is proved in experiment, that will be big breakthrough in many fields of technology.
- -- Superreflectivity. If free electrons located between two thin transparency plates, that may be superreflectivity mirror for widely specter of radiation. That is necessary in many important technical field as light engine, multy-reflect propulsion [13] Ch.12 and thermonuclear power [21] Ch.11.
Table 2. The results of estimation main parameters of three AB towers (masts)
having the base (top) radius r0 = 10 m and strength coefficient K = 2 for two E =100, 150 MV/m.
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Fig.8. Suspended Magnetic AB-Structure
Current technology can build the high height and space towers (mast). We can start an inflatable or steel tower having the height 3 km. This tower is very useful (profitable) for communication, tourism and military. The inflatable tower is significantly cheaper (in ten tines) then a steel tower, but it is having a lower life times (up 30-50 years) in comparison the steel tower having the life times 100 - 200 years. The new advance materials can change this ratio and will make very profitable the high height towers. The circle, kinetic, electrostatic and magnetic space towers promise a jump in building of space towers but they are needed in R&D. The information about the current tallest structures the reader find in [23].
References
Many works noted below the reader can find on site Cornel University <http://arxiv.org/> and <http://www.scribd.com> search "Bolonkin", site <http://bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm> and in Conferences 2002-2006 (see, for example, Conferences AIAA, http://aiaa.org <http://aiaa.org/> , search "Bolonkin")
Grezi o zemle i nebe (in Russian), Academy of Sciences, USSR., Moscow, p. 35, 1999.
27 Sept.,2006, Wichita, Kansas, USA, http://arxiv.org/ftp/physics/papers/0701/0701093.pdf .
See also paper AIAA-2006-4235 by A. Bolonkin.
10035-02, 34th Scientific Assembly of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR). The Wold Space Congress - 2002, 10 -19 Oct. 2002, Houston, Texas, USA.
pp. 299-334, NOVA, 2008. http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm,
http://www.scribd.org , search term "Bolonkkin".
pp. 165-186; http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm, http://www.scribd.com/doc/24056182 ; Main idea of this Chapter was presented as papers COSPAR-02, C1.1-0035-02 and IAC-02-IAA.1.3.03, 53rd International Astronautical Congress. The World Space Congress-2002, 10-19 October 2002, Houston, TX, USA, and the full manuscript was accepted as AIAA-2005-4504, 41st Propulsion Conference, 10-12 July 2005, Tucson, AZ, USA.http://aiaa.org search "Bolonkin".
http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057071.
http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057930 , http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm .
22. Bolonkin A.A., Magnetic Suspended AB-Structures and Moveless Space Satellites.
http://www.scribd.com/doc/25883886
Commons license. http://wikipedia.org .
propulsion systems for Space Launch and Flight
(Part 1)
Key words: Review, Non-rocket propulsion, non-rocket space launching, non-rocket space flight, cable launch system, circle launch system, space keeper, kinetic propulsion system, gas-tube launch system, sliding rotary method, asteroid employment, electromagnetic accelerator, Sun and magnetic sail, solar wind sail, radioisotope sail, electrostatic space sail, laser beam propulsion system, kinetic anti-gravitator (repulsator), Earth-Moon non-rocket and Earth-Mars non-rocket transport system, multi-reflective beam propulsion system, electrostatic levitation, recombination engine, electronic sail, solar sail.
Introduction
Wernher von Braun, at the time a young aspiring rocket scientist, joined the military (followed by two former VfR members) and developed long-range weapons for use in World War II by Nazi Germany. In 1943, production of the V-2 rocket began in Germany. It had an operational range of 300 km (190 mi) and carried a 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) warhead, with an amatol explosive charge. It normally achieved an operational maximum altitude of around 90 km (56 mi), but could achieve 206 km (128 mi) if launched vertically.
After World War 2 the missile systems have received the great progress and achieved a great success. But rocket system is very expensive. In end of 1990 the researchers begin to study the non-rocket systems which promise to decrease the space launch and flight cost in hundreds times. The pioneer of these researches professor Alexander Bolonkin published the first serious book [1] in this field.
Current status of non-rocket space launch and flight systems. Over recent years interference-fit joining technology including the application of space methods has become important in the achievement of space propulsion system. Part results in the area of non-rocket space launch and flight methods have been patented recently or are patenting now.
Professor Bolonkin made ??a significant contribution to the study of the different types of non-rocket space launch and flight in recent years [1],[6]-[22] (1982-2011). Some of them are presented in given review.
Cable Space Launcher is researched in [1, pp.39-58]; Circle Launcher and Space Keeper were developed in [1, pp.59-82]; Kinetic Launcher and Kinetic Keeper were researched in [1, Ch.5, 9], [9], [10]; Gas tube hypersonic launcher presented in [1, pp.125-146]; Earth-Moon cable transport system was offered in [1, pp.147-156]; Earth-Mars cable transport system [1, pp.157-164]; Centrifugal space launchers were suggested in [1, pp.187-208, pp.223-244]; Asteroids as propulsion system of space ships were published in [1, pp.209-222]; Multi-reflex propulsion systems were researched in [1, pp.223-244]; Electrostatic Solar wind propulsion was developed in [1, pp.245-270]; Electrostatic utilization of asteroids as space propulsion in [1, pp.271-280]; Electrostatic levitation is presented in [1. pp.281-302]; Guided solar sail and energy generator is described in [1, pp.303-308]; Radioisotope space sail and electro-generator is presented in [1, pp.309-316]; Electrostatic solar sail is researched in [1, pp. 317-326]; Recombination space jet propulsion engine is described in [1, pp.327-340]; and Electronic sail is described in [1, pp.327-340]. Some of these systems were developed in [2]-[23].
Significant scientific, interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the 20th century, when rocketry was the enabling technology of the Space Age, including setting foot on the moon.
But rockets are very expensive and have limited possibilities. In the beginning 21th century the researches of non-rocket launch and flight started [1], [5]-[8].Some of them are described in this review.
Contents:
1. Cable Space Launcher
2. Circle Launcher and Space Keeper
3. Kinetic Launcher and Kinetic keeper
4. Gas tube hypersonic launcher
5. Earth-Moon cable transport system
6. Earth-Mars cable transport system
7. Centrifugal space launchers
8. Asteroids as propulsion system of space ships
1. Cable Space Launcher*
Brief Description. The installation includes (see notations in Fig. 1.1): a cable; power drive stations; winged space apparatus (space ship, missile, probe, projectile and so on); conventional engines and flywheels; and a launching area (airdrome). Between drive stations the cable is supported by columns. The columns can also hold additional cables for future launches and a delivery system for used cable.
2. Circle Launcher and Space Keeper*
The installation includes (Fig. 2.1): a closed-loop cable made from light, strong material (such as artificial fibers, whiskers, filaments, nanotubes, composite material) and a main engine, which rotates the cable at a fast speed in a vertical plane. The centrifugal force makes the closed-loop cable a circle. The cable circle is supported by two pairs (or more) of guide cables, which connect at one end to the cable circle by a sliding connection and at the other end to the planet's surface. The installation has a transport (delivery) system comprising the closed-loop load cables (chains), two end rollers at the top and bottom that can have medium rollers, a load engine and a load. The top end of the transport system is connected to the cable circle by a sliding connection; the lower end is connected to a load motor. The load is connected to the load cable by a sliding control connection.
3. Kinetic launcher on kinetic towers*
Brief description of innovation.
The installation (kinetic tower) includes (see notations in Fig. 3-1a,b and others): a strong closed-loop cable, two rollers, any conventional engine, a space station, a load elevator, and support stabilization ropes.
The theory shows, that current widely produced artificial fibers (see References1 for cable properties) allow the cable to reach altitudes up to 100 km (see Projects 1 and 2 in [1] Ch.5). If more altitude is required a multi-stage tower must be used ([1], Fig. 5.2, see also Project 3 in [1] Ch.5). If a very high altitude is needed (geosynchronous orbit or more), a very strong cable made from nanotubes must be used (see Project 4).
4. Gas Tube Hypersonic Launcher*
* This review is based on a paper presented at the 38th AIAA Propulsion Conference, 7-10 July 2002, Indianapolis, USA (AIAA-2002-3927) and the World Space Congress, 10-19 Oct. 2002, Houston, USA (IAC-02-S.P.15). Detailed material is published as A.A.Bolonkin, "Hypersonic Gas-Rocket Launcher of High Capacity", JBIS, vol. 57, No. 5/6, 2004, pp. 162-172; Journal Actual Problems of Aviation and Aerospace Systems, Kazan, 1 (15), pp. 45-69, 2003.
See also in [1, Ch.6, pp.125-146].
The tube rocket engine can be made without a special nozzle (Fig. 4.1b). In this case, the fuel efficiency of the gas-rocket engine will decrease but its construction becomes simpler.
Liquid fuel (benzene, kerosene) is injected into the space below nozzle 6 through the launch tube injectors (item 15, Fig. 4-1) and ignited. Valve 17 (Fig. 4-1) is opened. The hot combustion gas expands and pushes the payload/piston system along the launch tube together with the air column (item 7) between the piston and nozzle.
When the piston reaches the maximum gun speed (about 1 km/s), the compressed air column begins to work as a rocket engine using one of the special injection fuel programs (see Reference in [1, Ch.612]).
As the payload/piston approaches the end of the launch tube, valve 19 is opened and the airlock (item 20) begins to operate. After the payload/piston has left the launch tube, valve 18 closes the end of the launch tube and re-directs the hot combustion gases down the bypass tube (item 21) to various turbo-machines preparing compressed air for the next shot and electricity for customers.
After the payload/piston system leaves the launch tube, the payload (projectile) separates from the piston and the empty fuel tank. The payload continues to fly along a ballistic trajectory. At apogee, the payload may use a small rocket engine to reach orbit or to fly to any point on Earth.
5. Earth-Moon Cable Transport System*
Brief Description.
An optimal (minimum mass, equal stress) variable diameter cable is defined for the main tether. The main cable has a relatively large but variable cross-section area (diameter) because it has to support the total system weight, which is several hundred times the load weight. In an optimal main cable the cross-section area increases (for K = 2, about 20 times) in the altitude range 0 - 150,000 km, is approximately constant in the range 150,000-380,000 km, and decreases near the Moon's surface, from 20,000 km to the surface.
The load containers are connected to the transport cable. When containers come up to the rollers, they pass the rollers, connect to the next link and continue their motion along the main cable. The load (cabin) has special clamps to allow this transfer between the different diameter cables in each link1. Most space payloads, like tourists, must be returned to Earth. When one container is moved up, another container is moved down. The work of lifting equals the work of descent, except for a small friction loss in the rollers. The transport system may be driven by a conventional motor located at the Earth drive station, on a space station, or on the Moon. When payloads are not being delivered into space, the system may be used to transfer mechanical energy to the Moon. For example, the Earth drive station can rotate an electric generator on the Moon.
Fig. 5.1. A conceptual Earth-Moon transportation system. One end is connected to the Earth's pole. the second end is connected to the Moon. Notation: 1 - the Earth; 2 - Earth's atmosphere; 3 - axis of Earth rotation; 4 - Earth Pole; 5 - Earth-Moon cable transport system in right position (one extreme of the Moon's position); 6 - Earth-Moon system in left position; 7 - air balloons; 8 - support wings; 9 - drive station; 10 - Moon.
- -- Earth-Mars Cable Transport System*
The author offers and computes a new permanent cable transport system that links a pole of the Earth with Mars orbit. This system connects Earth and Mars for 1-1.5 months every 1.7-2 years when they are located at the nearest distance and allows the transfer of people and loads to Mars and back. The system has many advantages because it uses a transport engine located on Earth, but it also requires the high strength cable made from nanotubes. This work contains theory of an optimal equal stress cable, that connects the Earth and Mars orbit, as well as computed parameters of the suggested system.
The review contains the theory and results of computation for a special project. This project uses three cables (one main cable and two for driving loads) mass from artificial material: whiskers, nanotubes, with the specific tensile strength (ratio of tensile stress to density) k = ?/? = 20.107 (K = 20) or more. Nanotubes with the same or better parameters are available in scientific laboratories. The theoretical limit of nanotubes of SWNT type is about k = 100.107 (K = 100).
Fig. 6.1. The offered Earth-Mars orbit Transport System. a. Sun-Earth-Mars; b. Earth-Mars; c. Connection to Earth pole. Notations: 1- Earth, 2 - Mars, 3 - Sun, 4 - Earth pole, 5 - Earth-Mars cable transport system in right position, 6 - Earth-Mars cable transport system in left position, 7 - air balloon, 8 - support wing, 9 - drive station, 10 - Earth orbit, 11 - Mars orbit, 12 - Earth atmosphere, 13 - axis of Earth rotation.
7. Centrifugal Space Launcher*
Description of Innovative Launcher
The installation works in the following way (Fig. 7.1). The engine rotates the flywheels. When the flywheels accumulate sufficient energy, they rotate as a lever. The lever accelerates the space apparatus ("s.a."). The apparatus may be located on the lever and the sling is increased after the start. The apparatus speed increases. It is greater than the lever speed in the ratio R/R0, where R is the radius of the apparatus trajectory circle, R0 is the radius of the lever (or disk). When the apparatus reaches its chosen speed, the winged apparatus is disconnected from the sling at the desired point of the circle. While the winged apparatus is flying in the atmosphere, it can increase its slope and correct its trajectory. If the apparatus has a hypersonic (supersonic) form, the speed loss is small13.
- -- The sling launcher is many times less expensive than modern rocket launch systems. No expensive rockets are needed. Only motor and cable are required.
- -- The sling launcher reduces the delivery cost by several thousand times (to as low as $5 to $10 per pound). (No rocket, cheaper fuel.)
- -- The sling launcher could be constructed within one to two years. The aircraft sling launcher requires only a cable and a spaceship. Modern rocket launch systems require many years for R&D and construction.
- -- The sling launcher does not require high technology and can be made by any non-industrial country.
- -- Rocket fuel is expensive. The ground sling launcher can use the cheapest sources of energy, such as wind, water, or nuclear power, or the cheapest fuels such as gas, coal, peat, etc., because the engine is located on the Earth's surface. Flywheels may be used as an accumulator of energy.
- -- It is not necessary to have highly qualified personnel, such as rocket specialists with high salaries.
- -- The fare for space tourists would be small.
- -- There is no pollution of the atmosphere from toxic rocket gas.
- -- Thousands of tons of useful payloads can be launched annually.
8. Asteroids as Propulsion System of Space Ships*
Connection Method
Description of Utilization
Figs. 8.1a,b,c show the preparations for using a natural body to change the trajectory of the space apparatus; for example, the natural space body 2, which is moving in the same direction as the apparatus (perpendicular to the sketch, Fig. 8.1a). The ship wants to make a maneuver (change direction or speed) in plane 3 (perpendicular to the sketch), and the position of the apparatus is corrected and moved into plane 3. It is assumed that the space body has more mass than the apparatus.
9. Multi-reflex Propulsion Systems for Space and Air Vehicles and Energy Transfer for Long Distance*
The reflection of light is the most efficient method to use for a propulsion system. It gives the maximum possible specific impulse (light speed is 3.108 m/s). The system does not expend mass. However, the light intensity in full reflection is very small, about 0.6?10-6 kg/ kW. In 1983 the author suggested the idea of increasing the light intensity by a multi-reflex method (multiple reflection of the light beam) and he offered some innovations to dramatically decrease the losses in mirror reflection (including a cell mirror and reflection by a super-conducting material). This allows the system to make some millions of reflections and to gain some Newtons of thrust per kW of beam power. This allows for the design of many important devices (in particular, beam engines [1, Ch.127]) which convert light directly into mechanical energy and solve many problems in aviation, space, energy and energy transmission.
Description of innovation
Multi-reflex launch installation of a space vehicle. In a multiple reflection propulsion system a set of tasks appear: how to increase a mirror's reflectivity, how to decrease the light dispersion (from mirror imperfections and non-parallel surfaces), how to decrease the beam divergence, how to inject the beam between the mirrors (while keeping the light between the mirrors for as long as possible), how to decrease the attenuation (a mirror, prism material, etc), how to increase the beam range, and how much force the system has.
(?1.414), the light will be reflected by total internal reflection. The small losses may be only from prism (medium) attenuation, scattering, or due to small surface imperfections and Fresnel reflections at the entrance and exit faces. Fresnel reflections do not result losses when the beam is perpendicular to the entry surface. No entry losses occur where the beam is polarized in parallel of the entry surface or the entry surface has an anti-reflection coating with reflective index
Here n0, n2 are reflective indexes of the vacuum and prism respectively. These cell mirrors turn a beam (light) exactly back at 180o if the beam deviation is less 5-10o from a perpendicular to the mirror surface. For incident angles greater than sin-1(n1/n2), no light is transmitted, an effect called total internal reflection. Here n is the refractive index of the medium and the lens (n - 1-4). Total internal reflection is used for our reflector, which contains two plates (mirrors) with a set of small corner cube prisms reflecting the beam from one side (mirror) to the other side (mirror) (Fig. 9.1b,c, f). Each plate can contain millions of small (30-100 ?m) prisms from highly efficient optic material used in optical cables [1] Ch.129. For this purpose a superconductivity mirror [1] Ch.125 may also be used,
The offered multi-reflex light launcher, space and air focused energy transfer system is very simple (needing only special mirrors, lenses and prisms), and it has a high efficiency. One can directly transfer the light beam into space acceleration and mechanical energy. A distant propulsion system can obtain its energy from the Earth. However, we need very powerful lasers. Sooner or later the industry will create these powerful lasers (and cell mirrors) and the ideas presented here will become possible. The research on these problems should be started now.
Fig. 10.1 (Left) Hyperbolic trajectory of protons around static negative charge (or electrons around positive charge) (unlike charges). Notations are: 1 - solar wind (charged particles); 2 - hollow negatively charged ball of thin film; 3 - hyperbolic trajectory of charged particles; 4 - positively charged particles (protons).
11. Electrostatic Utilization of Asteroids for Space Flight*
The author offers an electrostatic method for changing the trajectory of space probes. The method uses electrostatic force and the kinetic or rotary energy of asteroids, comet nuclei, meteorites or other space bodies (small planets, natural planet satellites such a moons, space debris, etc.) to increase or decrease ship/ probe speed by 1000 m/s or more and to achieve any new direction in outer space. The flight possibilities of spaceships and probes are thereby increased by a factor of millions.
Description
. The method includes the following main steps (Fig. 11.1):
12. Electrostatic Levitation on the Earth and Artificial Gravity for Space Ships and Asteroids*
The author offers and researches the conditions which allow people and vehicles to levitate on the Earth using the electrostatic repulsive force. He shows that by using small electrically charged balls, people and cars can take flight in the atmosphere. Also, a levitated train can attain high speeds. He has computed some projects and discusses the problems which can appear in the practical development of this method. It is also shown how this method may be used for creating artificial gravity (attraction force) into and out of space ships, space hotels, asteroids, and small planets which have little gravity.
Brief description of innovation
It is known that like electric charges repel, and unlike electric charges attract (Fig. 12.1a,b,c). A large electric charge (for example, positive) located at altitude induces the opposite (negative) electric charge at the Earth's surface (Figs. 12.1d,e,f,g) because the Earth is an electrical conductor. Between the upper and lower charges there is an electric field. If a small negative electric charge is placed in this electric field, this charge will be repelled from the like charges (on the Earth's surface) and attracted to the upper charge (Fig. 12.1d). That is the electrostatic lift force. The majority of the lift force is determined by the Earth's charges because the small charges are conventionally located near the Earth's surface. As shown below, these small charges can be connected to a man or a car and have enough force to lift and supports them in the air.
13. Guided Solar Sail and Energy Generator*
A solar sail is a large thin film mirror that uses solar energy for propulsion. The author proposed innovations and a new design of Solar sail in 1985 [1] Ch.161. This innovation allows (main advantages only):
2) Utilization of the solar sail as a power generator (for example, electricity generator);
3) Use of the solar sail for long-distance communication systems.
Description of innovation and their advantages
The proposed innovation of a solar sail1 is presented in Fig. 13.1. Theory developed in author publication [1, Ch.162] may be useful for flight analysis. The solar sail contains: a space ship, 1, a spherical reflector, 2, a mirror, 5, and additional devices to support spherical reflector, control the thrust direction, and convert the light energy into electricity and additional thrust.
If we direct the solar beam into the ship, we can convert the huge solar energy into any other sort of energy, for example, into electricity using a conventional method (solar cell or heat machine). A reflector of 100Ч100 m2 produces 14,000 kW energy at 1 AU. The developed ion thrusters are very efficient and have a high specific impulse, but they need a great amount of energy. We have this
The author has also proposed a method using surface tension of a solar sail and a solar mirror [1, Ch.1610].
The suggested revolutionary propulsion system uses current technology and may be produced in the near future but needs detailed research and computation.
14. Radioisotope Space Sail and Electro-Generator*
Radioisotope sail is a thin film of an alpha particle emitting radioisotope deposited on the back of a plastic sail that can provide useful quantities of both propulsion and electrical power to a deep space vehicle. The momentum kick of the emitted alpha particles provides radioisotope sail thrust levels per square meter comparable to that of a solar sail at one astronautical unity (1 AU). The electrical power generated per 1 square m is comparable to that obtained from solar cells at 1 AU. Radioisotope sail systems will maintain these propulsion and power levels at distances from the Sun where solar powered systems are ineffective.
Description of method and innovations
Brief history of innovation
15. Electrostatic Solar Sail*
The solar sail has become well-known after much discussion in the scientific literature as a thin continuous plastic film, covered by sunlight-reflecting appliquИd aluminum. Earlier, there were attempts to launch and operate solar sails in near-Earth space and there are experimental projects planned for long powered space voyages. However, as currently envisioned, the solar sail has essential disadvantages. Solar light pressure in space is very low and consequently the solar sail has to be very large in area. Also it is difficult to unfold and unfurl the solar sail in space. In addition it is necessary to have a rigid framework to support the thin material. Such frameworks usually have great mass and, therefore, the spacecraft's acceleration is small.
----------------------
*See [1, Ch.18, pp. 317-326].
A conventional solar sail is a dielectric thin film (thickness 5 mkm = 5000 nm) with an aluminum layer 100 nm thick, and it has 90% reflectivity. The weight of one square meter is 5-7 g/m2. If it accelerates by itself the maximum acceleration is about 1 mm/s2. However, the gigantic thin film needs a rigid structure to support the very thin film in an unfolded position and to unable it to be controlled. This rigid structure has a large weight, so it is very difficult to launch and to unfurl the structure in space. All attempts to do this (for example, to unfurl the inflatable radio-antennas in space) have failed.
16. Recombination Space Jet Propulsion Engine*
There are four known ionized layers in the Earth's atmosphere, located at an altitude of 85-400 km. Here the concentration of ions reaches millions of particles in 1 cubic centimeter. In the inter-planetary medium the concentration of ion reaches 10-103 particles in 1 cm3 and in interstellar space it is about 1-10 in 1 cm3. As a result there is interaction between solar radiation in the Earth's atmosphere, solar wind, and galactic radiation.
=======
*See [1, Ch. 19, pp. 327-338].
Description of innovation
In the recombination propulsion engine contains a tube with an intake and a nozzle, and a solenoid (Fig. 16.1).
17. Electronic Sail*
A solar sail reflects solar light and can be a used as propulsion system, as described in [1, Ch. 16]. It needs thin film of a very large area. This manuscript proposes a new way of creating a reflecting surface of large area using an electronic method. This method needs research and development but it may be easier and more efficient than the film method.
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*See [1, Ch.19, pp.334-335].
Brief description of innovation
References
Many works noted below the reader can find on site Cornel University <http://arxiv.org/>, sites <http://www.scribd.com> , http://www.archive.org, <http://bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm> and in Conferences 2002-2006 (see, for example, Conferences AIAA, <http://aiaa.org/> , search "Bolonkin" )
http://www.archive.org/details/Non-rocketSpaceLaunchAndFlight, http://www.scribd.com/doc/24056182
Grezi o zemle i nebe (in Russian), Academy of Sciences, USSR., Moscow, p. 35, 1999.
http://www.archive.org/details/Macro-projectsEnvironmentsAndTechnologies
http://www.scribd.com/doc/32744477 ,
http://www.archive.org/details/NewTechnologiesAndRevolutionaryProjects
pp.199-226, " AB-Space Propulsion", http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057930 ,
http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm .
http://www.archive.org/details/Macro-projectsEnvironmentsAndTechnologies
http://www.scribd.com/doc/25883886 .
http://www.archive.org/details/FemtotechnologyDesignOfTheStrongestAb-matterForAerospace.
208 pgs. 16 Mb. http://www.scribd.com/doc/48229884,
http://www.archive.org/details/Life.Science.Future.biographyNotesResearchesAndInnovations
(http://www.scribd.com/doc/40640088/).
25. Wikipedia. Some background material in this article is gathered from Wikipedia under
the Creative Commons license. http://wikipedia.org .
One design of aircraft Xb-70
propulsion systems for Space Launch and Flight
(Part 2)
Abstract
Key words: Non-rocket propulsion, non-rocket space launching, non-rocket space flight, electrostatic AB-ramjet space propulsion, beam space propulsion, MagSail, high speed AB-solar sail, transfer electricity in outer space, simplest AB-thermonuclear space propulsion, electrostatic linear engine and launcher, AB-levitrons, electrostatic climber, AB-space propulsion, convertor any matter in nuclear energy, femtotechnology, wireless transfer of energy, magnetic space launcher, railgun, superconductivity railgun.
Introduction
After World War 2 the missile systems have received the great progress and achieved a great success. But rockets are very expensive and have limited possibilities. In the beginning 21th century the researches of non-rocket launch and flight started [1],[5]-[22]. The non-rocket systems which promise to decrease the space launch and flight cost in hundreds times. Some of them are described in this review.
Professor Bolonkin made ??a significant contribution to the study of the different types of non-rocket space launch and flight in recent years [1]-[22] (1982-2011). Some of them are presented in given review.
is developed in [2, Ch.5]; Transfer electricity in outer space is offered in [2, Ch. 6]; Simplest AB-thermonuclear space propulsion is suggested in [2] Ch.7; Electrostatic linear engine and cable space launcher is presented in [2, Ch.10]; AB-levitrons are in [2, Ch. 12]; Electrostatic climber is researched in [3, Ch. 4]; AB-space propulsion is presented in [16] and [3, Ch.10]; Wireless transfer of energy is described in [4, Part A, Ch.3]; Magnetic space launcher is offered in [4, Part A, Ch.6]; Railgun Launch System is suggested in [4, Part A, Ch.7]; Superconductivity rail gun is presented in [6] and in [4, Part A, Ch.3]; Convertor any matter in nuclear energy and photon rocket is offered and researched in [4, Part A, Ch.1], [7], [19]; Femtotechnology and its application into aerospace technology is suggested and researched in [4, Part A, Ch.2], [8],[18]. Some of these system were developed in [9]-[23].
But rockets are very expensive and have limited possibilities. In the beginning 21th century the researches of non-rocket launch and flight started [1], [5]-[8].Some of them are described in this review.
Contents:
1. Electrostatic AB-ramjet space propulsion,
2. Beam space propulsion,
1. Electrostatic AB-ramjet space propulsion*
A new electrostatic ramjet space engine is proposed and analyzed. The upper atmosphere (85 -1000 km) is extremely dense in ions (millions per cubic cm). The interplanetary medium contains positive protons from the solar wind. A charged ball collects the ions (protons) from the surrounding area and a special electric engine accelerates the ions to achieve thrust or decelerates the ions to achieve drag. The thrust may have a magnitude of several Newtons. If the ions are decelerated, the engine produces a drag and generates electrical energy. The theory of the new engine is developed. It is shown that the proposed engine driven by a solar battery (or other energy source) can not only support satellites in their orbit for a very long time but can also work as a launcher of space apparatus. The latter capability includes launch to high orbit, to the Moon, to far space, or to the Earth atmosphere (as a return thruster for space apparatus or as a killer of space debris). The proposed ramjet is very useful in interplanetary trips to far planets because it can simultaneously produce thrust or drag and large electric energy using the solar wind. Two scenarios, launch into the upper Earth atmosphere and an interplanetary trip, are simulated and the results illustrate the excellent possibilities of the new concept.
---------------------
Introduction
- -- a sphere (Figure 1-2c) having a thin cover of plastic film and a very thin (some nanometers) conducting layer (aluminum), with the concentrically spheres inserted one into the other (Figure 1-2d),
- -- a net formed from thin wires (Figure 1-2e);
- -- a cylinder (without butt-end)(Figure 1-2f); or
- -- a plate (Figure 1-2g).
Figure 1-4. Electric gun for charging AB-Ramjet engine and transfer charges (energy) in long distance. a) Side view, b) Front view. Notations: 1 - gun tube, 2 - opposed charged electrodes, 3 - source of charged particles (ions, electrons), 4 - particles beam.
2. Beam Space Propulsion?
The author offers a revolutionary method - non-rocket transfer of energy and thrust into Space with distance of millions kilometers. The author has developed theory and made the computations. The method is more efficient than transmission of energy by high-frequency waves. The method may be used for space launch and for acceleration the spaceship and probes for very high speeds, up to relativistic speed by current technology. Research also contains prospective projects which illustrate the possibilities of the suggested method.
Description of Innovation
- -- a sphere (Figure 1-2c, Ch. 1) having a thin cover of plastic film and a very thin (some nanometers) conducting layer (aluminum), with the concentric spheres inserted one into the other (Figure 1-2d, Ch. 1),
- -- a net formed from thin wires (Figure 1-2e, Ch. 1);
- -- a cylinder (without butt-end)(Figure 1-2f, Ch. 1); or
- -- a plate (Figure 1-2g, Ch. 1).
3. Space Magnetic Sail?
- -- It is very difficult to locate gigantic (tens of km radius) ring in outer space.
- -- It is difficult to insert a big energy into superconductive ring.
- -- Super-conductive ring needs a low temperature to function at all. The Sun heats all bodies in the Solar System to a temperature higher then temperature of super-conductive materials.
- -- The super-conductive ring explodes if temperature is decreased over critical value.
- -- It is difficult to control the value of MagSail thrust and the thrust direction.
- -- No heavy super-conductive large ring.
- -- No cooling system for ring is required.
- -- Electronic ring is safe.
- -- The thrust (ring radius) easy changes by changing of ball charge.
4. High Speed AB-Solar Sail?
5. Transfer of Electricity in Outer Space?
- -- Transfer of electrical energy in outer space using the conductive cord from plasma. Author solved the main problem - how to keep plasma cord in compressed form. He developed theory of space electric transference, made computations that show the possibility of realization for these ideas with existing technology. The electric energy may be transferred in hundreds millions of kilometers in space (include Moon and Mars).
- -- Method of construction for space electric lines and electric devices.
- -- Method of utilization of the plasma cable electric energy.
- -- A new very perspective gigantic plasma MagSail for use in outer space as well as a new method for connection the plasma MagSail to spaceship.
- -- A new method of projecting a big electric energy through the Earth's ionosphere.
- -- A new method for storage of a big electric energy used Earth as a gigantic spherical condenser.
- -- A new propulsion system used longitudinal (cable axis) force of electric currency.
Figure 5-3c presents the plasma beam reflector. That has three charged nets. The first and second nets reflect (for example) positive particles, the second and third nets reflected the particles having an opposed charge.
Generator*
The author applies, develops and researches mini-sized Micro- AB Thermonuclear Reactors for space propulsion and space power systems. These small engines directly convert the high speed charged particles produced in the thermonuclear reactor into vehicle thrust or vehicle electricity with maximum efficiency. The simplest AB-thermonuclear propulsion offered allows spaceships to reach speeds of 20,000 - 50,000 km/s (1/6 of light speed) for fuel ratio 0.1 and produces a huge amount of useful electric energy. Offered propulsion system permits flight to any planet of our Solar system in short time and to the nearest non-Sun stars by E-being or intellectual robots during a single human life period.
-------------------------------------
Description of Innovations
The AB thermonuclear propulsion and electric generator are presented in Figure 6-1. As it is shown in [2] the minimized, or micro-thermonuclear reactor 1 generates high-speed charged particles 2 and neutrons that leave the reactor. The emitted charged particles may be reflected by electrostatic reflector, 4, or adsorbed by a semi-spherical screen 3; the neutrons may only be adsorbed by screen 3.
Conclusion
The author suggests the simplest maximally efficient thermonuclear AB-propulsion (and electric generators) based in the early offered size-minimized Micro-AB-thermonuclear reactor [2, Part B, Ch.1, p. 223]. These engines directly convert high-speed charged particles produced in thermonuclear reactor into vehicular thrust or onboard vehicle electricity resource. Offered propulsion system allows travel to any of our Solar System's planets in a short time as well as trips to the nearest stars by E-being or intellectual robot in during a single human life [2, Part C].
8. AB Levitrons and their Applications to Earth's Motionless Satellites*
Author offers the new and distinctly revolutionary method of levitation in artificial magnetic field. It is shown that a very big space station and small satellites may be suspended over the Earth's surface and used as motionless radio-TV translators, telecommunication boosters, absolute geographic position locators, personal and mass entertainment and as planet-observation platforms. Presented here is the theory of big AB artificial magnetic field and levitation in it is generally developed. Computation of three macro-projects: space station at altitude 100 km, TV-communication antenna at height 500 m, and multi-path magnetic highway.
-----------------------------------
Innovations
The AB-Levitron uses two large conductivity rings with very high electric currency (fig.8-1). They create intense magnetic fields. Directions of electric currency are opposed one to the other and rings are repelling one from another. For obtaining enough force over a long distance, the electric currency must be very strong. The current superconductive technology allows us to get very high-density electric currency and enough artificial magnetic field in far space.
Conclusion
We must research and develop these ideas. They may accelerate the technical progress and improve our life-styles. There are no known scientific obstacles in the development and design of the AB-Levitrons, levitation vehicles, high-speed aircraft, spaceship launches, low-aititude stationary tele-communication satellites, cheap space trip to Moon and Mars and other interesting destination-places in outer space.
Linear rotor has permanent charged cylinder 4. As additional devices, the engine can have a gas-pressurizing capability and a vacuum pump [1-2].
Notations: 1 - plate cable of Space Elevator with inserted variable cylindrical charges; 2 - part of cable-bearing tensile stress; 3 - insulated variable charging cylinder of stator; 4 - insulated permanent charging cylinder of rotor; 6 - high-voltage wires connected with Earth's generator and switch; 7 - mobile part of electrostatic linear engine; 8 - cable to space aircraft.
Offered Innovations and Brief Descriptions
- -- Transfer of electrical energy in outer space using a conductive cord from plasma. Author has solved the main problem - how to keep the plasma cord from dissipation, and in compressed form. He has developed the theory of space electric transference, made computations that show the possibility of realization for these ideas with existing technology. The electric energy may be transferred for hundreds millions of kilometers in space (including Moon and Mars) [1].
- -- Method of construction of space electric lines and electric devices.
- -- Method of utilization and tapping of the plasma cable electric energy.
- -- Two methods of converting the electric energy to impulse (thrust) motion of a spacecraft (these two means are utilization of the magnetic field and of the kinetic energy of ions and electrons of the electric current).
- -- Design of a triple electrostatic mirror (plasma reflector), which can reflect the plasma flow [1].
Figure 10-2. a. A plasma cable supported by its' own magnetic field, b. Magnetic intensity into and out of plasma cable. Notations: 1 -plasma cable, 2 - compressing magnetic field, 3 - electric source, 4 - electric receiver, 5 - electric current, 6 - back plasma line; 7 - magnetic intensity into and out of plasma cable.
- -- The railgun uses SOLID physical rails for delivery the electric current to conductivity projectile. These are easily damaged by huge electric current. The AB-Space Engine uses flexible plasma cables which can self-repair.
- -- The railgun uses the rails which are of fixed construction (unalterable) and a spacecraft so launched can move solely in the rail direction. The AB-Space Engine creates the plasma cable in the course of apparatus movement and can select and change the apparatus' future direction.
- -- Even a theoretical railgun girdling the globe of the Moon in vacuum (for star probe launch) would have a possible length of only some kilometers (as any solid construction). The plasma electric line (used byAB-Space Engine) can have a length (an acceleration path) of millions of kilometers (and thus may someday power manned craft on missions to near interplanetary space).
Discussion
- -- The offered AB-Space Engine is very light, simple, safe, and reliable with comparison to any likely nuclear engine.
- -- The AB-Space Engine has a gigantic `virtual specific impulse', being more capable of realistic operation in a projectable near-future environment, than virtually any proposed means of thermonuclear or light-propulsion scheme the author is aware of.
- -- The AB-Space Engine can accelerate a near-term space apparatus to very high speed (approaching light speed). At present time this is the single real method to be able to approach this `ultimate' velocity.
- -- At least part of the needed injected plasma cable mass and nearly all of the energy needed (and the cooling facilities needed to maintain that energy supply) can be from the planet-bound energy-supplying station, further improving the on-board ship `mass ratio'.
- -- The AB-Space Engine can use far cheaper energy from a planet-bound electric station.
This new revolutionary idea - The AB-Space Engine and wireless transferring of electric energy in the hard vacuum of outer space - is offered and researched. A rarefied plasma power cord in the function of electric cable (wire) is used for it. It is shown that a certain minimal electric current creates a compression force that supports and maintains the plasma cable in its compacted form. Large amounts of energy can be transferred hundreds of millions of kilometers by this method. The requisite mass of plasma cable is merely hundreds of grams (some kg). A sample macroproject is computed: An AB-Space Engine having thrust = 10 tons. It is also shown that electric current in plasma cord can accelerate or slow various kinds of outer space apparatus.
11. Wireless Transfer of Electricity from Continent to Continent*
Early it is offered connection to Earth ionosphere by 100 km solid or inflatable towers. There are difficult for current technology. In given work the research this connection by thin plastic tubes supported in atmosphere by electron gas and electrostatic force. Building this system is cheap and easy for current technology.
It is interesting the idea of energy transfer from one Earth continent to another continent without wires. As it is known the resistance of infinity (very large) conducting medium does not depend from distance. That is widely using in communication. The sender and receiver are connected by only one wire, the other wire is Earth. The author offers to use the Earth's ionosphere as the second plasma cable. It is known the Earth has the first ionosphere layer E at altitude about 100 km (Fig. 1). The concentration of electrons in this layer reaches 5в104 1/cm3 in daytime and 3.1в103 1/cm3 at night (Fig. 11-1). This layer can be used as a conducting medium for transfer electric energy and communication in any point of the Earth. We need minimum two space 100 km. towers (Fig. 11-2). The cheap optimal inflatable, kinetic, and solid space towers are offered and researched by author in [4]. Additional innovations are a large inflatable conducting balloon at the end of the tower and big conducting plates in a sea (ocean) that would dramatically decrease the contact resistance of the electric system and conducting medium.
Electronic tubes
An electronic AB-Tube is a tube filled by electron gas (fig.11-3). Electron gas is the lightest gas known in nature, far lighter than hydrogen. Therefore, tubes filled with this gas have the maximum possible lift force in atmosphere (equal essentially to the lift force of vacuum). The applications of electron gas are based on one little-known fact - the electrons located within a cylindrical tube having a positively charged cover (envelope) are in neutral-charge conditions - the total attractive force of the positive envelope plus negative contents equals zero. That means the electrons do not adhere to positive charged tube cover. They will freely fly into an AB-Tube. It is known, if the Earth (or other planet) would have, despite the massive pressures there, an empty space in Earth's very core, any matter in this (hypothetical!) cavity would be in a state of weightlessness (free fall). All around, attractions balance, leaving no vector `down'.
Summary
A method and facilities for delivering payload and people into outer space are presented. This method uses, in general, engines located on a planetary surface. The installation consists of a space apparatus, power drive stations, which include a flywheel accumulator (for storage) of energy, a variable reducer, a powerful homopolar electric generator and electric rails. The drive stations accelerate the apparatus up to hypersonic speed.
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Description of Suggested Launcher
The offered design of the magnetic launcher has many innovations which help to overcome the obstacles afforded by a conventional railgun. Itemizing some of them:
1. Fly-wheels from artificial fiber.
2. Small variable reducer with smooth change of turns and high variable rate.
3. Multi-stage monopolar electric generator having capacity of producing millions of amperes and
a variable high voltage during a short time.
4. Sliding mercury (gallium) contact having high pass capacity.
5. Double switch having high capacity and short time switching.
6. Special design of projectile (conductor ring) having permanent contact with electric rail.
rail.
8. Homopolar generator has magnets inserted into a disk (wheel) form. That significantly simplifies
the electric generator.
9. The rails and electric generator can have internal water-cooling.
10. The generator can return rotation energy back to a flywheel after shooting, while rails can
return the electromagnetic energy to installation. That way a part of shot energy may be returned.
This increases the coefficient of efficiency of the launch installation.
The fly-wheel has a disadvantage in that it decreases its' turning speed when one spends its energy. The prospective space apparatus and space launcher needs, on the contrary, an increase of voltage for accelerating the payload. The homopolar generator really would like to increase the number of revolutions thus increasing the voltage. The offered variable reducer approaches this ideal, keeping constant or even increasing the speed of rotation of the electric generator. In addition, the multi-stage electric generator can additionally increase its' voltage by chaining (concatenation of turning on in series mode) its stages or sections.
Fig. 12-3. Variable reducer. (a) Start position; (b) final position. Notations: 1 - shift of electric generator; 2 - shift of fly-wheel; 3 - tape (inertial transfer roll).
Conclusion
and may be used only for unmanned, hardened payload. If we want design the manned launcher the rail way must be 1100 km for acceleration a = 3g (untrained passengers) and about 500 km (a = 6g) for trained cosmonauts.
Our design is not optimal. For example, the computation shows, if we increase our rail track only by 15 m, we do not need gas gun initial acceleration. That significantly decreases the cost of installation and simplifies its construction.
The reader can recalculate the installation for his own scenarios.
13. Lower Current and Plasma Magnetic Railguns*
It is well-known that the magnetic railgun theoretically allows a very high `exhaust velocity' of projectile. The USA and England have tried to research and develop working railgun installations. However the researchers had considerable problems in testing. The railgun requests very high (millions of amperes,) electric current (but low voltage). As result the rails and contacts burn and melt. The railgun can make only ONE shot between repairs, cannot shoot a big and high speed projectile, and has low efficiency.
Important advantages of the offered design are the lower (up to some tens of times) usage of electric current of high voltage and a very high efficiency coefficient closeto 95% (compare with efficiency of the current railgun which equals 20 - 40%). The suggested accelerators may be produced by present technology.
----------------------------
Description of Innovations and Problems in AB-Launchers
1) Version 1 (fig. 13-1b). The horizontal wire (fig. 13-1a, former sliding jumper 8 of fig. 13-1a) is made in a form of closed-loop spool (fig. 13-1b, #10). The lower part of this spool (fig. 13-1b, #11) located in place of former jumper near the magnetic field of vertical wire (fig. 13-1b). The top part of this spool (fig. 13-1b, #10) located at top - out of the magnetic field of vertical wire 2. As the result the magnetic field of the vertical wire 2 activates only on horizontal wires 11. But now we have here not one wire with current i, we have n wires and current ni. The magnetic force 4 and requested 4 voltage increases by n times! The force spool 10 can have some hundreds loops and force will be more in same times thanin case of fig. 13-1a. For same vertical force the electric current in the vertical connection wires 2 may be decreases in n1= n times, where n1 is number of horizontal loops. The electric current may be relatively small (only some tens of thousands of amperes, not millions) and of the high voltage. The request vertical wire may be relatively thin. The heating, contact and inductive losses decrease in n1 times, where n1 is number of horizontal loops. The number of contacts N=2 is same (not increases).
Fig. 13-1. Conventional and low current launchers. (a) Conventional high current and low voltage railgun; (b) Offered low current launcher with the wire horizontal multi-loops (version 1); (c) Offered low current launcher with the wire vertical multi-loops (version 2); (d) Offered low current launcher with the wire horizontal and vertical muiti-loops (version 3); (f) RailGun with condenser. (version 4). Notations: 1 - installation, 2 - vertical wire, 3 - magnetic field from vertical wire; 4 - moved vertical force from jumper; 5 - magnetic force from vertical electric wire, 6 - electric source, 7- sliding contact, 8 - horizontal jumper, 9 - magnetic column, 10 - multi-loop spool, 11, 12 - horizontal force wire connected in one bunch, 13 - force multi-loops spools connected in one spool, 14 - condenser, 15 - electric switch.
Multi-loop Railguns with permanent magnets
This magnetic accelerator may be suitable for a space launcher having small accelerations.
Plasma magnetic launcher
The thin wire may be initial initiator of a of plasma cable. Then a plasma conductor supports the big current.
The offered plasma cable may be used in other technical fields [2] -[4]. This problem needs further research.
Fig.13-3. Offered plasma launchers. (a) Launcher having conventional vertical wire and plasma jumper; (b) Launcher having vertical and horizontal (jumper) plasma wires. Notations: 1- projectile, 2 - horizontal plasma jumper, 3 - gas sealing, 4 - conducting tube, 5 - electric current into plasma.
Conclusion
Important advantage of the offered design is the lower (up some tens times) used electric current of high voltage and the very high inductive efficiency coefficient close to 0.9 (compared with efficiency of the current railgun equal to 20 - 40%). The suggested launchers may be produced by present technology.
Small cheap magnetic prototypes would be easily tested.
14. Superconductivity Space Accelerator *
Important advantages of the offered design is the low (up to some thousands of times) used electric current of high voltage and very high efficiency coefficient close to 1 (compare with efficiency of the current railgun which equals 20 - 40%). The suggested accelerator may be produced by present technology.
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New type of magnetic acceleration (magnetic AB-column)
1. Description of Innovations. The conventional magnetic accelerator (railgun) is shown in fig.1. That contains two the conductive rails connected by a sliding jumper. Electric currents produce the magnetic field and magnetic force. The jumper accepts the magnetic force and accelerates the projectile. Main defects of conventional rail gun: The rail gun requires a gigantic current (millions of amperes) of low voltage, rails have large electric resistance, strongly heating up, contacts burn, installation is damaged and requires repair after every shot. The energy charge is high (small coefficient of efficiency. You see the gigantic plasma column behind the small projectile in [4] Ch.6, fig.2). The repulsive force between rails is gigantic (thousands of tons) and installation is thus heavy and expensive if it is to survive a single shot.
The second important innovation is the connection spool, which increases the acceleration distance, deletes the sliding contacts and heavy rails.
The limitation is about 1 - 3 km/s for the current artificial fiber (whiskers) having a safe tensile stresses about 200 - 1000 kgf/mm2. But if we use nanotubes, the limit is more by 5 -10 times.
3. Cooling system of superconductive wire. The current superconductive conductors do not spend electric energy and pass very large electric current densities, but they require an cooling system because the current superconductive materials have the critical temperature of about 100 - 180 K (see Table #1 below). The wire located into Earth's atmosphere (up 50 - 80 km) needs cooling.
Fig. 14-1. Principal sketch of the Magnetic AB-Accelerator. Notations: (a) Principal sketch of conventional (one turn) magnetic accelerator, (b) - Multi-loop force spool at top of accelerator (same force spool located at ground), (c) - rocket (projectile) with detachable magnetic accelerator at bottom. Parts: 1 - magnetic installation with magnetic column, 1a - sliding contct, 2 - vertical wire and direction of electric current i, 2a - horizontal wire (jumper) and direction of electric current i, 3 - magnetic field from vertical electric wire, 3a - magnetic column, 4 - magnetic force from horizontal electric wire (jumper), 5 - magnetic force from vertical electric wire, 6 - electric source, 7 - connection spool, 8 - rocket (projectile), 9 - force spool, 10 - magnetic accelerator, 11 - wire multi-loop superconductive force spool at top (same spool located also on Earth surface), 12 - lower wires of loop (force spool), 13 - top wires of loop (force spool), 14 - magnetic field from vertical wire, 15 - thin film or artificial fiber connected the vertical wires for compensation the magnetic repulse force, 16 - repulsive magnetic force, 17 - acceleration force, 18 - area strong magnetic field, i - electric current in vertical wire, ni - electric current in the force spool.
There are hundreds of new superconductive materials (type 2) having critical temperature 70 ? 120 K and more. Some of the superconductable materials are presented in Table 1 (2001). The widely used YBa2Cu3O7 has mass density 7 g/cm3.
Table 1. Transition temperature Tc and upper critical magnetic field B = Hc2(0) of some examined superconductors AIP, Physics desk references, 3rd ed., p. 752.
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- -- No problem with burn of rail and contact.
- -- No damage and repair of installation after every shot.
- -- Limit in speed of projectile is high (7 - 9 km/s).
- -- No limit to mass of projectile.
- -- Installation is cheaper.
- -- Installation requires ~2 - 3 times less of energy than same output conventional railgun.
Conclusion
In this chapter the author describes new idea, theory and computations for design the new magnetic low cost accelerator for railgun projectile and space apparatus. The suggested design does not have the traditional current rails and sliding contacts. That accelerates the projectile and space apparatus by a magnetic column which can have a length of some kilometers, produces the very high acceleration and the projectile (apparatus) speed up 8 km/s.
Important advantage of the offered design is the lower (up some thousands times) used electric current of high voltage and the very high efficiency coefficient close to 1 (compared with efficiency of the current railgun equal to 20 - 40%). The suggested accelerator may be produced by present technology.
The important advantage of the offered method for space apparatus is following: The method does not need designing new rockets. What is needed is to design only a simple accelerator (accelerate platform). Any current rocket may be installed on this platform and accelerated up high speed and lifted on high altitude before started. That radically increases payload and decreases the cost of launching. The platform (force spool) and wires disconnects from the rocket after acceleration. Platform returns by parachute, the wires reel back to start.
Small cheap magnetic prototypes would be easily tested.
15. Converting of Matter to Nuclear Energy by
AB-Generator and Photon Rocket*
The AB-Generator can produce gigantic energy outputs and should be cheaper than a conventional electric station by a factor of hundreds of times. One also may be used in aerospace as a photon rocket or as a power source for many vehicles.
Many scientists expect the Large Hadron Collider at CERN will produce one MBH every second.
A technology to capture them may follow; than they may be used for the AB-Generator.
CO, USA. See also Converting of Any Matter to Nuclear Energy by-AB-Generator
http://www.scribd.com/doc/24048466/,
http://www.scipub.org/fulltext/ajeas/ajeas24683-693.pdf
Converting of any Matter to Nuclear Energy by AB-Generator and Aerospace ,
AB-Generator of Nuclear Energy and some Innovations
Note: The photon does NOT have rest mass. Therefore a photon can leave the MBH's neighborhood (if it is located beyond the event horizon). All other particles having a rest mass and speed less than light speed cannot leave the Black Hole. They cannot achieve light speed because their mass at light speed equals infinity and requests infinite energy for its' escape--an impossibility.
Description of AB- Generator. The offered nuclear energy AB- Generator is shown in fig. 15-1. That includes the Micro Black Hole (MBH) 1 suspended within a spherical radiation reflector and heater 5. The MBH is supported (and controlled) at the center of sphere by a fuel (plasma, proton, electron, matter) gun 7. This AB- Generator also contains the 9 - heat engine (for example, gas, vapor turbine), 10 - electric generator, 11 - coolant (heat transfer agent), an outer electric line 12, internal electric generator (5 as antenna) with customer 14.
Work. The generator works the following way. MBH, by selective directional input of matter, is levitated in captivity and produces radiation energy 4. That radiation heats the spherical reflector-heater 5. The coolant (heat transfer agent) 11 delivers the heat to a heat machine 9 (for example, gas, vapor turbine). The heat machine rotates an electric generator 10 that produces the electricity to the outer electric line 12. Part of MBH radiation may accept by sphere 5 (as antenna) in form of electricity.
The control fuel guns inject the matter into MBH and do not allow bursting of the MBH. This action also supports the MBH in isolation, suspended from dangerous contact with conventional matter. They also control the MBH size and the energy output.
Any matter may be used as the fuel, for example, accelerated plasma, ions, protons, electrons, micro particles, etc. The MBH may be charged and rotated. In this case the MBH may has an additional suspension by control charges located at the ends of fuel guns or (in case of the rotating charged MBH) may have an additional suspension by the control electric magnets located on the ends of fuel guns or at points along the reflector-heater sphere.
Innovations, features, advantages and same research results
Some problems and solutions offered by the author include the following:
AB-Generator as Photon Rocket
The some possible photon propulsion system used the AB -Generator is shown in Fig.15-2. In simplest version (a) the cover of AB generator has window 3, the radiation goes out through window and produces the thrust. More complex version (c) has the parabolic reflector, which sends all radiation in one direction and increases the efficiency. If an insert in the AB- Generator covers the lens 6 which will focuses the radiation in a given direction, at the given point the temperature will be a billions degree (see Equation (2)) and AB-Generator may be used as a photon weapon.
The maximal thrust T of the photon engine having AB- Generator may be computed (estimated) by equation:
, N, (26)
For example, the AB-generator, which spends only 1 gram of matter per second, will produce a thrust 3в105 N or 30 tons.
Fig. 15-2. AB-Generator as Photon Rocket and Radiation (Photon) Weapon. (a) AB- Generator as a Simplest Photon Rocket; (b) AB- Generator as focused Radiation (photon, light or laser) weapon; (c) Photon Rocket with Micro-Black Hole of AB-Generator. Notations: 1 - control MBH; 2 - spherical cover of AB-Generator; 3 - window in spherical cover; 4 - radiation of BH; 5 - thrust; 6 - lens in window of cover; 7 - aim; 8 - focused radiation; 9 - parabolic reflector.
2. The Micro Black Hole (MBH) is offered for this conversion.
a) Controlled charging of MBH and of ends of the fuel guns.
b) Control charging of rotating MBH and control of electric magnets located on the ends of
by Hawking radiation loses energy after passing through the very strong gravitational MBH
field. The MBH radiation can reach the reflector-heater as the light or short-wave radio
MBH and can not influence the Hawking radiation.
the surrounding matter and cannot automatically grow to consume the planet.
The offered fuel gun may to grow them (or decrease them) to needed size or the initial MBH
assume LHC will produce one MBH every second (86,400 MBH in day). The cosmic
radiation also produces about 100 MBH every year.
The Hawking article was published 34 years ago (1974)[4]. After this time the hundreds of scientific works based in Hawking work appears. No facts are known which creates doubts in the possibility of Hawking radiation but it is not proven either. The Hawking radiation may not exist. The Large Hadron Collider has the main purpose to create the MBHs and detect the Hawking radiation.
Conclusion
16. Femtotechnology: the Strongest AB-Matter with Fantastic
Properties and their Applications in Aerospace*
----------------------------------
http://www.archive.org/details/FemtotechnologyDesignOfTheStrongestAb-matterForAerospace or
American Journal of Engineering and Applied Science, Vol. 2, #2, 2009, pp.501-514.
http://www.scipub.org/fulltext/ajeas/ajeas22501-514.pdf
Innovations and computations
Short information about atom and nuclei. Conventional matter consists of atoms and molecules. Molecules are collection of atoms. The atom contains a nucleus with proton(s) and usually neutrons (Except for Hydrogen-1) and electrons revolve around this nucleus. Every particle may be characterized by parameters as mass, charge, spin, electric dipole, magnetic moment, etc. There are four forces active between particles: strong interaction, weak interaction, electromagnetic charge (Coulomb) force and gravitational force. The nuclear force dominates at distances up to 2 fm (femto, 1 fm = 10-15 m). They are hundreds of times more powerful than the charge (Coulomb force and million-millions of times more than gravitational force. Charge (Coulomb) force is effective at distances over 2 fm. Gravitational force is significant near and into big masses (astronomical objects such as planets, stars, white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes). Strong force is so overwhelmingly powerful that it forces together the positively charged protons, which would repel one from the other and fly apart without it. The strong force is key to the relationship between protons, neutrons and electrons. They can keep electrons into or near nuclei. Scientists conventionally take into attention only of the strong force when they consider the nuclear and near nuclear size range, for the other forces on that scale are negligible by comparison for most purposes.
2. AB-Matter. In conventional matter made of atoms and molecules the nucleons (protons, neutrons) are located in the nucleus, but the electrons rotate in orbits around nucleus in distance in millions times more than diameter of nucleus. Therefore, in essence, what we think of as solid matter contains a -- relatively! --`gigantic' vacuum (free space) where the matter (nuclei) occupies but a very small part of the available space. Despite this unearthly emptiness, when you compress this (normal, non-degenerate) matter the electrons located in their orbits repel atom from atom and resist any great increase of the matter's density. Thus it feels solid to the touch.
Fig. 16-1. Typical nuclear force of nucleus. When nucleon is at distance of less than 1.8 fm, it is attracted to nucleus. When nucleon is very close, it is repulsed from nucleus.
(Reference from http://www.physicum.narod.ru , Vol. 5 p. 670).
- -- Some offered technologies for producing AB-Matter. One method of producing AB-Matter may use the technology reminiscent of computer chips ([8], fig.11). The stability and other method of production AB-matter considered in the article preparing for publication.
The developing of femtotechnology is easier, in one sense, than the developing of fully controllable nanotechnology because we have only three main particles (protons, neutrons, their ready combination of nuclei 2D, 3T, 4He, etc., and electrons) as construction material and developed methods of their energy control, focusing and direction.
Another way is using a construct of AB-Matter as a continuous film or net (fig.16-4).
The AB-Matter film and net may be used for energy storage which can store up huge energy intensities and used also as rocket engines with gigantic impulse or weapon or absolute armor (see computation and application sections). Note that in the case of absolute armor, safeguards must be in place against buffering sudden accelerations; g-force shocks can kill even though nothing penetrates the armor!
We spoke about the fantastic tensile and compressive strength, rigidity, hardness, specific strength, thermal (temperature) durability, thermal shock, and big elongation of AB-Matter which are more millions time then conventional matter (see [8]).
Short note about other miraculous AB-Matter properties:
1. Zero heat/thermal capacity. That follows because the mass of nucleons (AB-Matter string, film, net) is large in comparison with mass single atom or molecule and nucleons in AB-Matter have a very strong connection one to other. Conventional atoms and molecules cannot pass their paltry energy to AB-Matter! That would be equivalent to moving a huge dry-dock door of steel by impacting it with very light table tennis balls.
2. Zero heat/thermal conductivity. (See above).
3. Absolute chemical stability. No corrosion, material fatigue. Infinity of lifetime. All chemical reactions are acted through ORBITAL electron of atoms. The AB-Matter does not have orbital electrons (special cases will be considered later on). Nucleons cannot combine with usual atoms having electrons. In particular, the AB-Matter has absolute corrosion resistance. No fatigue of material because in conventional material fatigue is result of splits between material crystals. No crystals in AB-Matter. That means AB-Matter has lifetime equal to the lifetime of neutrons themselves. Finally a container for the universal solvent!
5. Impenetrability for gas, liquids, and solid bodies. When the AB-Matter net has a step size between strings of less than atomic size of 10-10 m, it became impenetrabile for conventional matter. Simultaneously it may be invisible for people and have gigantic strength. The AB-Matter net may -as armor--protect from gun, cannon shells and missiles.
6. Super-impenetrability for radiation. If the cell size of the AB-Matter net will be less than a wave length of a given radiation, the AB-Matter net does not pass this radiation. Because this cell size may be very small, AB net is perfect protection from any radiation up to soft gamma radiation (include radiation from nuclear bomb).
7. Full reflectivity (super-reflectivity). If the cell size of an AB-Matter net will be less than a wavelength of a given radiation, the AB-Matter net will then fully reflect this radiation. With perfect reflection and perfect impenetrability remarkable optical systems are possible. A Fresnel like lens might also be constructible of AB-Matter.
8. Permeable property (ghost-like intangibility power; super-passing capacity). The AB-Matter net from single strings having mesh size between strings of more than 100 nm = 10-11 m will pass the atoms and molecules through itself because the diameter of the single string (2в10-15 m) is 100 thousand times less then diameter of atom (3в10-10 m). That means that specifically engineered constructions from AB-Matter can be built on the Earth, but people will not see and feel them. The power to phase through walls, vaults, and barriers has occasionally been portrayed in science fiction but here is a real life possibility of it happening.
9. Zero friction. If the AB-Matter net has a mesh size distance between strings equals or less to the atom (3в10-10 m), it has an ideal flat surface. That means the mechanical friction may be zero. It is very important for aircraft, sea ships and vehicles because about 90% of its energy they spend in friction. Such a perfect surface would be of vast value in optics, nanotech molecular assembly and prototyping, physics labs, etc.
10. Super or quasi-super electric conductivity at any temperature. As it is shown in previous section the AB-Matter string can have outer electrons in an arrangement similar to the electronic cloud into metal. But AB-Matter strings (threads) can be located along the direction of the electric intensity and they will not resist the electron flow. That means the electric resistance will be zero or very small.
11. High dielectric strength (see Equation (21) in [4] Ch.2).
AB-Matter may be used for devices to produce high magnetic intensity.
12. Transfer pressure in long distance. The pressure force of AB-string is very high and does NOT depend from its length (that will be shown in the next author research). That means we can penetrate into the human body without damage it from distance in hundreds kilometers, into the Earth (geological exploration), into other planets (Moon, Mars) without flight to them, keep the motion less satellites and build the Space Elevator from Earth surface.
Applications and new systems in Aerospace and aviation
1. Storage of gigantic energy.
As it is shown in [3]-[7], the energy saved by flywheel equals the special mass density of material (17). As you see that is a gigantic value of stored energy because of the extreme values afforded by the strong nuclear force. Car having a pair of 1 gram counterspun fly-wheels (2 grams total) (20) charged at the factory can run all its life without benzene. Aircraft or sea ships having 100 gram (two 50 gram counterspun fly-wheels) can fly or swim all its life without additional fuel. The offered flywheel storage can has zero friction and indefinite energy storage time.
2. New propulsion system of space ship.
The most important characteristic of rocket engine is specific impulse (speed of gas or other material flow out from propulsion system). Let us compute the speed of a part of fly-wheel ejected from the offered rocket system
(1)
Here V is speed of nucleon, m/s; E = 12.8в10-13 J (1) is energy of one nucleon, J; m = 1,67в10-27 kg is mass of one nucleon, kg. The value (1) is about 13% of light speed.
The chemical rocket engine has specific impulse about 3700 m/s. That value is 10 thousand times less. The electric rocket system has a high specific impulse but requires a powerful compact and light source of energy. In the offered rocket engine the energy is saved in the flywheel. The current projects of a nuclear rocket are very complex, heavy, and dangerous for men (gamma and neutron radiation) and have specific impulse of thousands of times less (1). The offered AB-Matter rocket engine may be very small and produced any rocket thrust in any moment in any direction.
The offered flywheel rocket engine used the AB-matter is presented in fig.16-5a. That is flywheel made from AB-matter. It has a nozzle 3 having control of exit mass. The control allows to exit of work mass in given moment and in given position of flywheel. The flywheel rotates high speed and the exhaust mass leave the rocket engine with same speed when the nozzle is open. In result the engine has thrust 6. As exhaust mass may be used any mass: liquid (for example, water), sand, small stones and other suitable planet or space material (mass). The energy needed for engine and space ship is saved in the revolving flywheel. This energy may be received at started planet or from space ship engine.
The rocket used the suggested engine is shown in fig. 5b. That has a cabin 7, the offered propulsion system 8, undercarriage 9 and rotary mechanism 10 for turning the ship in need position.
Let us to estimate the possibility of offered rocket. Notate, the relation of the exhaust mass to AM-matter cover mass of flywheel are taken a = 10, the safety (strength) factor b = 4. About 20% of space ship is payload and construction and 80% is the exhaust mass. Then exhaust speed of throw away mass and receiving speed by space ship are:
(2)
where V speed of exhausted mass, m/s; k = ?/d = 1.9в1014 (m/s)2 is strength coefficient (16); ms is final mass of rocket, kg; Vs = 8480 km/s is final speed of rocket, m/s; m is throw off mass, kg.
Fig. 16-5. Schema of new rocket and propulsion system. (a) Propulsion system from AB matter and storage energy. (b) Rocket with offered propulsion system.
Notations: 1 - cover (flywheel) from AB-matter; 2 - any work mass; 3 - nozzle with control of exit mass; 4 - direction of rotation; 5 - direction of exhaust mass; 6 - thrust; 7 - space ship; 8 - offered propulsion system; 9 - undercarriage; 10 - rotary mechanism; 11 - planet surface.
6. High efficiency rocket, jet and piston aviation engines.
The efficiency conventional jet and rocket engines are very limited by the temperature and safety limits of conventional matter (2000oK). If we will design the rotor blades (in jet engine), combustion chamber (in rocket and piston engines) from AB-Matter, we radically improve their capacities and simplify their construction (for example, no necessary cooling system!).
7. Hypersonic aircraft.
The friction and heat which attacks conventional materials for hypersonic aircraft limits their speed. Using the AB-Matter deletes this problem. Many designs for aerospace planes could capture oxygen in flight, saving hauling oxidizer and carrying fuel alone--enabling airliner type geometries and payloads since the weight of the oxidizer and the tanks needed to hold it, and the airframe strengths required escalate the design and cascade through it until conventional materials today cannot build a single stage to orbit or antipodes aerospace plane. But that would be quite possible with AB-Matter.
8. Increasing efficiency of a conventional aviation and transport vehicles.
AB-Matter does not experience friction. The air drag in aviation is produced up 90% by air friction on aircraft surface. Using AB-Matter will make jump in flight characteristics of aircraft and other transport vehicles (including sea ships and cars).
9. Improving capabilities of all machines.
Appearance new high strength and high temperature AB-Matter will produce jump, technology revolution in machine and power industries.
The AB-Matter film allows to write in 1 cm2 N = 1/(4в10-26) = 2.5в1025 1/cm2 bits information. The current 45 nanometer technology allows to write only N = 2.5в1014 1/cm2 bit. That means the main chip and memory of computer based in AB-Matter film may be a billion times smaller and presumably thousands of times faster (based on the lesser distance signals must travel).
The reader can imagine useful application of AB-Matter in any field he is familiar with.
11. Penetration in any body in long distance.
We can penetrate into the human body without damage it from distance in hundreds kilometers, into the interior of the Earth (geological exploration), into other planets (Moon, Mars) without flight to them, keep the motion less satellites and build the Space Elevator from Earth surface.
Discussion
1. Micro-World from AB-Matter: An Amusing Thought-Experiment. AB-Matter may have 1015 times more particles in a given volume than a single atom.. A human being, man made from conventional matter, contains about 5в1026 molecules. That means that 200 `femto-beings' of equal complexity from AB-Matter (having same number of components) could be located in the volume of one microbe having size 10 ? = 10-5 m. If this proved possible, we could not see them, they could not see us in terms of direct sensory input. Because of the wavelength of light it is questionable what they could learn of the observable macro-Universe. The implications, for transhuman scenarios, compact interstellar (microbe sized!) payloads, uploading and other such scenarios are profound. It is worth recalling that a single house and garden required to support a single conventional matter human is, for AB-Matter `femto-beings', equivalent in relative vastness as the extended Solar system is for us. If such a future form could be created and minds `uploaded' to it, the future theoretical population, knowledge base, and scholarly and knowledge-industries output of even a single planet so populated could rival that of a theoretical Kardashev Type III galactic civilization!
2. Stability of AB-matter.
Readers usually ask: what is the connection (proton to proton) given a new element when, after 92 protons, the connection is unstable?
1) The any sphere having radius R - 6в10-15 m in any point of structure figs. 1 - 4 must contain NOT more 238 nucleons (about 92 of them must be protons). That means any cross-section area of the solid rod, beam and so on of AB-structure (for example figs. 16-1b,c,g) must contain NOT more about 36 nucleons.
2) AB-matter must contains the proton in a certain order because the electrostatic repel forces of them give the stability of the given structure.
The author offers a design for a new form of nuclear matter from nucleons (neutrons, protons), electrons, and other nuclear particles. He shows that the new AB-Matter has most extraordinary properties (for example, (in varying circumstances) remarkable tensile strength, stiffness, hardness, critical temperature, superconductivity, super-transparency, ghostlike ability to pass through matter, zero friction, etc.), which are millions of times better than corresponded properties of conventional molecular matter. He shows how to design aircraft, ships, transportation, thermonuclear reactors, and constructions, and so on from this new nuclear matter. These vehicles will have correspondingly amazing possibilities (invisibility, passing through any walls and amour, protection from nuclear bombs and any radiation, etc).
People may think this fantasy. But fifteen years ago most people and many scientists thought - nanotechnology is fantasy. Now many groups and industrial labs, even startups, spend hundreds of millions of dollars for development of nanotechnological-range products (precise chemistry, patterned atoms, catalysts, metamaterials, etc) and we have nanotubes (a new material which does not exist in Nature!) and other achievements beginning to come out of the pipeline in prospect. Nanotubes are stronger than steel by a hundred times--surely an amazement to a 19th Century observer if he could behold them.
Nanotechnology, in near term prospect, operates with objects (molecules and atoms) having the size in nanometer (10-9 m). The author here outlines perhaps more distant operations with objects (nuclei) having size in the femtometer range, (10-15 m, millions of times less smaller than the nanometer scale). The name of this new technology is femtotechnology.
I want to explain the main thrust of this by analogy. Assume we live some thousands of years ago in a great river valley where there are no stones for building and only poor timber. In nature we notice that there are many types of clay (nuclei of atom--types of elemet). One man offers to people to make from clay bricks (AB-Matter) and build from these bricks a fantastic array of desirable structures too complex to make from naturally occuring mounds of mud. The bricks enable by increased precision and strength things impossible before. A new level of human civilization begins.
I call upon scientists and the technical community to to research and develop femtotechnology. I think we can reach in this field progress more quickly than in the further prospects of nanotechnology, because we have fewer (only 3) initial components (proton, neutron, electron) and interaction between them is well-known (3 main forces: strong, weak, electostatic). The different conventional atoms number about 100, most commone moleculs are tens thousands and interactions between them are very complex (e.g. Van der Waals force).
It may be however, that nano and femto technology enable each other as well, as tiny bits of AB-Matter would be marvellous tools for nanomechanical systems to wield to obtain effects unimaginable otherwise.
What time horizon might we face in this quest? The physicist Richard Feynman offeredhis idea to design artificial matter from atoms and molecules at an American Physical Society meeting at Caltech on December 29, 1959. But only in the last 15 years we have initial progress in nanotechnology. On the other hand progress is becoming swifter as more and better tools become common and as the technical community grows.
Now are in the position of trying to progress from the ancient `telega' haywagon of rural Russia (in analogy, conventional matter composites) to a `luxury sport coupe' (advanced tailored nanomaterials). The author suggests we have little to lose and literal worlds to gain by simultaneously researching how to leap from `telega' to `hypersonic space plane'. (Femotech materials and technologies, enabling all the wonders outlined here).
References
Many works noted below the reader can find on site Cornel University <http://arxiv.org/>, sites <http://www.scribd.com> , <http://www.archive.org> search "Bolonkin", <http://bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm> and in Conferences 2002-2006 (see, for example, Conferences AIAA, <http://aiaa.org/> , search "Bolonkin" ). \
Aerospace", NOVA, 2008.http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057071 .
http://www.archive.org/details/Macro-projectsEnvironmentsAndTechnologies
http://www.archive.org/details/NewTechnologiesAndRevolutionaryProjects
http://arxiv.org/ftp/physics/papers/0701/0701073.pdf
Aerospace
American Journal of Engineering and Applied Science, Vol. 2, #4, 2009, pp.683-693.
8. Bolonkin A.A., (2009). Femtotechnology: Design of the Strongest AB-Matter for Aerospace
http://www.archive.org/details/FemtotechnologyDesignOfTheStrongestAb-matterForAerospace
http://www.scipub.org/fulltext/ajeas/ajeas22501-514.pdf .
pp.199-226," AB-Space Propulsion", http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057930 ,
http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm .
http://www.archive.org/details/Macro-projectsEnvironmentsAndTechnologies .
http://www.scribd.com/doc/25883886 .
http://www.archive.org/details/FemtotechnologyDesignOfTheStrongestAb-matterForAerospace.
2010, 208 pgs. 16 Mb. http://www.scribd.com/doc/48229884,
http://www.archive.org/details/Life.Science.Future.biographyNotesResearchesAndInnovations
Hypersonic aircraft
Rocket Aries
Chapter 16
Review of new ideas, innovations of non-rocket propulsion systems for Space Launch and Flight
(Part 3)
Abstract
Key words: Space Elevator, Men without the space suite into space, Artificial gravity, New method of atmospheric re-entry, Inflatable Dome for space, Closed loop water cycle, Climber for Space Elevator, Cheap protection from Nuclear Warhead, Wireless transfer of electricity throw outer Space, Artificial explosion of Sun.
Introduction
"Every day" technologies such as weather forecasting, remote sensing, GPS systems, satellite television, and some long distance communications systems critically rely on space infrastructure. Of sciences astronomy and Earth sciences (via remote sensing) most notably benefit from space technology.
Computers and telemetry were once leading edge technologies that might have been considered "space technology" because of their criticality to boosters and spacecraft. They existed prior to the Space Race of the Cold War (between the USSR and the USA.) but their development was vastly accelerated to meet the needs of the two major superpowers' space programs. While still used today in spacecraft and missiles, the more prosaic applications such as remote monitoring (via telemetry) of patients, water plants, highway conditions, etc. and the widespread use of computers far surpasses their space applications in quantity and variety of application.
Space is such an alien environment that attempting to work in it requires new techniques and knowledge. New technologies originating with or accelerated by space-related endeavors are often subsequently exploited in other economic activities. This has been widely pointed to as beneficial by space advocates and enthusiasts favoring the investment of public funds in space activities and programs. Political opponent] counter that it would be far cheaper to develop specific technologies directly if they are beneficial and scoff at this justification for public expenditures on space-related research.
Professor Bolonkin made ??a significant contribution to the study of the new revolutionary space technology in recent years [1]-[22] (1982-2011). Some of them are presented in given review.
Space Elevator, Transport System for Space Elevator is researched in [1] Ch.1; Men without the space suite into space is described in [1] Ch.19; Electrostatic levitation and Artificial gravity is investigated in [1] Ch.15; New method of atmospheric re-entry of space ship was studied in [2] Ch.8; Inflatable Dome for Moon, Mars, satellites, and space hotel is described [3] Ch2; AB method irrigation for planet without water (Closed loop water cycle) is studied in [3] Ch.1; Artificial explosion of the Sun was researched in [4] Ch.10.
But rockets are very expensive and have limited possibilities. In the beginning 21th century the researches of new space technologies started []-[22].Some of them are described in this review.
Contents:
1. Space Elevator, Transport System for Space Elevator
- --
Space Elevator, Transport System for Space Elevator*
* That part of the chapter was presented by author as paper IAC-02-V.P.07 at the World Space Congress-2002, Oct.10-19, Houston, TX, USA and published in JBIS, vol. 56, No. 7/8, 2003, pp. 231-249. See also Bolonkin A.A., (2005)"Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier, 2005, Ch.1, http://www.archive.org/details/Non-rocketSpaceLaunchAndFlight, http://www.scribd.com/doc/24056182
Free trip to Space (Project 1)
Description
Theory and Computation of optimal cable
(in metric system)
- -- The cable of equal stress for the planet. The force active in the cable is:
(1.1)
. (1.2)
. (1.3)
(1.4)
,
Transport system for Space Elevator (Project 1)
That is an example of an inexpensive transport system for cheap annual delivery of 100,000 tourists, or 12,000 tons of payload into Earth orbits, or the delivery up to 2,000 tourists to Mars, or the launching of up to 2,500 tons of payload to other planets.
Main results of computation
Estimations of installation cost and production cost of delivery
Cost of delivery
Delivery System for Free Round Trip to Mars (Project 2)
This method may be used for an inexpensive trip to a planet's moon, if the moon's angular speed is equal to the planet's angular speed, for example, from the Earth to the Moon and back (Fig. 1-5 to 1-7). The upper end of the cable is connected to the planet's moon. The lower end of the cable is connected to an aircraft (or buoy), which flies (i.e. glides or slides) along the planet's surface. The lower end may be also connected to an Earth pole. The aircraft (or Earth polar station, or Moon) has a device which allows the length of cable to be changed. This device would consist of a spool, motor, brake, transmission, and controller. The facility could have devices for delivering people and payloads to the Moon and back using the suggested transport system. The delivery devices include: containers, cables, motors, brakes, and controllers. If the aircraft is small and the cable is strong then the motion of the Moon can be used to move the airplane. For example, if the airplane weighs 15 tons and has an aerodynamic ratio (the lift force to the drag force) equal to 5, a thrust of 3000 kg would be enough for the aircraft to fly for infinity without requiring any fuel. The aircraft could use a small engine for maneuverability and temporary landing. If the planet has an atmosphere (as the Earth) the engine could be a turbine engine. If the planet does not have an atmosphere, a rocket engine may be used.
The other more simple design (without aircraft) is shown in [1] Fig. 7.1, chapter 7. The cable is connected to on Earth pole, to a special polar station which allows to change a length of cable. Near the pole the cable is supported in the atmosphere by air balloons and wings.
Technical parameters
Discussion
Cable Problems
Data that can be used for computation
- -- Experimental nanotubes CNT (carbon nanotubes) have a tensile strength of 200 Giga-Pascals (20,000 kg/mm2), Young's modulus is over 1 Tera Pascal, specific density ? =1800 kg/m3 (1.8 g/cc) (year 2000).
- -- For whiskers CD ? = 8000 kg/mm2, ? = 3500 kg/m3 (1989) [p.158]7.
- -- For industrial fibers ? = 500 - 600 kg/mm2, ? = 1800 kg/m3, ?/? = 2,78в106, K = 0.278 - 0.333,
Conclusions
- -- Man in Space without Space Suite*
The author proposes and investigates his old idea - a living human in space without the encumbrance of a complex space suit. Only in this condition can biological humanity seriously attempt to colonize space because all planets of Solar system (except the Earth) do not have suitable atmospheres. Aside from the issue of temperature, a suitable partial pressure of oxygen is lacking. In this case the main problem is how to satiate human blood with oxygen and delete carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide). The proposed system would enable a person to function in outer space without a space suit and, for a long time, without food. That is useful also in the Earth for sustaining working men in an otherwise deadly atmosphere laden with lethal particulates (in case of nuclear, chemical or biological war), in underground confined spaces without fresh air, under water or a top high mountains above a height that can sustain respiration.
---------------------------
Short history. A fictional treatment of Man in space without spacesuit protection was famously treated by Arthur C. Clarke in at least two of his works, "Earthlight" and the more famous "2001: A Space Odyssey". In the scientific literature, the idea of sojourning in space without complex space suits was considered seriously about 1970 and an initial research was published in [1] p.335 - 336. Here is more detail research this possibility.
Humans and vacuum. Vacuum is primarily an asphyxiant. Humans exposed to vacuum will lose consciousness after a few seconds and die within minutes, but the symptoms are not nearly as graphic as commonly shown in pop culture. Robert Boyle was the first to show that vacuum is lethal to small animals. Blood and other body fluids do boil (the medical term for this condition is ebullism), and the vapour pressure may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Ebullism is slowed by the pressure containment of blood vessels, so some blood remains liquid. Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in a flight suit. Shuttle astronauts wear a fitted elastic garment called the Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS) which prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 15 Torr (2 kPa). However, even if ebullism is prevented, simple evaporation of blood can cause decompression sickness and gas embolisms. Rapid evaporative cooling of the skin will create frost, particularly in the mouth, but this is not a significant hazard.
Animal experiments show that rapid and complete recovery is the norm for exposures of fewer than 90 seconds, while longer full-body exposures are fatal and resuscitation has never been successful.[4] There is only a limited amount of data available from human accidents, but it is consistent with animal data. Limbs may be exposed for much longer if breathing is not impaired. Rapid decompression can be much more dangerous than vacuum exposure itself. If the victim holds his breath during decompression, the delicate internal structures of the lungs can be ruptured, causing death. Eardrums may be ruptured by rapid decompression, soft tissues may bruise and seep blood, and the stress of shock will accelerate oxygen consumption leading to asphyxiation.
In 1942, the Nazi regime tortured Dachau concentration camp prisoners by exposing them to vacuum. This was an experiment for the benefit of the German Air Force (Luftwaffe), to determine the human body's capacity to survive high altitude conditions.
Some extremophile microrganisms, such as Tardigrades, can survive vacuum for a period of years.
In unicellular organisms, simple diffusion is sufficient for gas exchange: every cell is constantly bathed in the external environment, with only a short distance for gases to flow across. In contrast, complex multicellular organisms such as humans have a much greater distance between the environment and their innermost cells, thus, a respiratory system is needed for effective gas exchange. The respiratory system works in concert with a circulatory system to carry gases to and from the tissues.
In air-breathing vertebrates such as humans, respiration of oxygen includes four stages:
Respiratory physiology is the branch of human physiology concerned with respiration.
Virtually all the body's blood travels through the lungs every minute. The lungs add and remove many chemical messengers from the blood as it flows through pulmonary capillary bed. The fine capillaries also trap blood clots that have formed in systemic veins.
Gas exchange. The major function of the respiratory system is gas exchange. As gas exchange occurs, the acid-base balance of the body is maintained as part of homeostasis. If proper ventilation is not maintained, two opposing conditions could occur: 1) respiratory acidosis, a life threatening condition, and 2) respiratory alkalosis.
Upon inhalation, gas exchange occurs at the alveoli, the tiny sacs which are the basic functional component of the lungs. The alveolar walls are extremely thin (approx. 0.2 micrometres), and are permeable to gases. The alveoli are lined with pulmonary capillaries, the walls of which are also thin enough to permit gas exchange.
The introduction of microporous hollow fibres with very low resistance to mass transfer revolutionised design of membrane modules, as the limiting factor to oxygenator performance became the blood resistance [Gaylor, 1988]. Current designs of oxygenator typically use an extraluminal flow regime, where the blood flows outside the gas filled hollow fibres, for short term life support, while only the homogeneous membranes are approved for long term use.
Some of these requirements also apply to pressure suits worn for other specialized tasks, such as high-altitude reconnaissance flight. Above Armstrong's Line (~63,000 ft/~19,000 m), pressurized suits are needed in the sparse atmosphere. Hazmat suits that superficially resemble space suits are sometimes used when dealing with biological hazards.
A conventional space suit must perform several functions to allow its occupant to work safely and comfortably. It must provide: A stable internal pressure, Mobility, Breathable oxygen, Temperature regulation, Means to recharge and discharge gases and liquids , Means of collecting and containing solid and liquid waste, Means to maneuver, dock, release, and/or tether onto spacecraft.
Operating pressure. Generally, to supply enough oxygen for respiration, a spacesuit using pure oxygen must have a pressure of about 4.7 psi (32.4 kPa), equal to the 3 psi (20.7 kPa) partial pressure of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere at sea level, plus 40 torr (5.3 kPa) CO2 and 47 torr (6.3 kPa) water vapor pressure, both of which must be subtracted from the alveolar pressure to get alveolar oxygen partial pressure in 100% oxygen atmospheres, by the alveolar gas equation. The latter two figures add to 87 torr (11.6 kPa, 1.7 psi), which is why many modern spacesuits do not use 3 psi, but 4.7 psi (this is a slight overcorrection, as alveolar partial pressures at sea level are not a full 3 psi, but a bit less). In spacesuits that use 3 psi, the astronaut gets only 3 - 1.7 = 1.3 psi (9 kPa) of oxygen, which is about the alveolar oxygen partial pressure attained at an altitude of 6100 ft (1860 m) above sea level. This is about 78% of normal sea level pressure, about the same as pressure in a commercial passenger jet aircraft, and is the realistic lower limit for safe ordinary space suit pressurization which allows reasonable work capacity.
Movements are seriously restricted in the suits, with a mass of more than 110 kilograms each (Shenzhou 7 space suit). The current space suits are very expensive. Flight-rated NASA spacesuits cost about $22,000,000. While other models may be cheaper, sale is not currently open even to the wealthy public. Even if spaceflight were free (a huge if) a person of average means could not afford to walk in space or upon other planets.
Fig. 2-1. a. Apollo 11 A7L space suit. b. Diagram showing component parts of A7L space suit.
Brief Description of Innovation
Fig.2-2. Principal sketch of heart-Lung Machine
Fig.2-3. Principal sketch of oxygenator.
Fig.2-5. (Right). The human circulatory system. Red indicates oxygenated blood, blue indicates deoxygenated.
Two types of fluids move through the circulatory system: blood and lymph. The blood, heart, and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system. The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels form the lymphatic system. The cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system collectively make up the circulatory system.
The simplest form of intravenous access is a syringe with an attached hollow needle. The needle is inserted through the skin into a vein, and the contents of the syringe are injected through the needle into the bloodstream. This is most easily done with an arm vein, especially one of the metacarpal veins. Usually it is necessary to use a constricting band first to make the vein bulge; once the needle is in place, it is common to draw back slightly on the syringe to aspirate blood, thus verifying that the needle is really in a vein; then the constricting band is removed before injecting.
When man does not use the outer air pressure in conventional space suite, he not has opposed internal pressure except the heart small pressure in blood. The skin vapor easy stop by film clothes or make small by conventional clothes.
The current lung devices must be re-designed for space application. These must be small, light, cheap, easy in application (using hollow needles, no operation (surgery)!), work a long time in field conditions. Wide-ranging space colonization by biological humanity is impossible without them.
Application of offered devices gives humanity a unique possibility to be a long time without conventional nutrition. Many will ask, "who would want to live like that?" But in fact many crew members, military, and other pressured personnel routinely cut short what most would consider normal dining routines. And there are those morbidly obese people for whom dieting is difficult exactly because (in an unfortunate phrase!) many can give up smoking `cold turkey', but few can give up `eating cold turkey'! Properly `fed' intravenously, a person could lose any amount of excess weight he needed to, while not suffering hunger pains or the problems the conventional eating cycle causes. It is known that people in a coma may exist some years in artificial nutrition inserted into blood. Let us consider the current state of the art.
Total parenteral nutrition (TPN), is the practice of feeding a person intravenously, bypassing the usual process of eating and digestion. The person receives nutritional formulas containing salts, glucose, amino acids, lipids and added vitamins.
Total parenteral nutrition (TPN), also referred to as Parenteral nutrition (PN), is provided when the gastrointestinal tract is nonfunctional because of an interruption in its continuity or because its absorptive capacity is impaired. It has been used for comatose patients, although enteral feeding is usually preferable, and less prone to complications. Short-term TPN may be used if a person's digestive system has shut down (for instance by Peritonitis), and they are at a low enough weight to cause concerns about nutrition during an extended hospital stay. Long-term TPN is occasionally used to treat people suffering the extended consequences of an accident or surgery. Most controversially, TPN has extended the life of a small number of children born with nonexistent or severely deformed guts. The oldest were eight years old in 2003.
The preferred method of delivering TPN is with a medical infusion pump. A sterile bag of nutrient solution, between 500 mL and 4 L is provided. The pump infuses a small amount (0.1 to 10 mL/hr) continuously in order to keep the vein open. Feeding schedules vary, but one common regimen ramps up the nutrition over a few hours, levels off the rate for a few hours, and then ramps it down over a few more hours, in order to simulate a normal set of meal times.
Chronic TPN is performed through a central intravenous catheter, usually in the subclavian or jugular vein. Another common practice is to use a PICC line, which originates in the arm, and extends to one of the central veins, such as the subclavian. In infants, sometimes the umbilical vein is used.
Battery-powered ambulatory infusion pumps can be used with chronic TPN patients. Usually the pump and a small (100 ml) bag of nutrient (to keep the vein open) are carried in a small bag around the waist or on the shoulder. Outpatient TPN practices are still being refined.
Aside from their dependence on a pump, chronic TPN patients live quite normal lives.
Central IV lines flow through a catheter with its tip within a large vein, usually the superior vena cava or inferior vena cava, or within the right atrium of the heart.
There are several types of catheters that take a more direct route into central veins. These are collectively called central venous lines.
In the simplest type of central venous access, a catheter is inserted into a subclavian, internal jugular, or (less commonly) a femoral vein and advanced toward the heart until it reaches the superior vena cava or right atrium. Because all of these veins are larger than peripheral veins, central lines can deliver a higher volume of fluid and can have multiple lumens.
Another type of central line, called a Hickman line or Broviac catheter, is inserted into the target vein and then "tunneled" under the skin to emerge a short distance away. This reduces the risk of infection, since bacteria from the skin surface are not able to travel directly into the vein; these catheters are also made of materials that resist infection and clotting.
Testing
- -- Using a hollow needle, the main blood system of a good healthy animal connects to a current heart-lung machine.
- -- The animal is inserted under a transparent dome and air is gradually changed to a neutral gas (for example, nitrogen). If all signs are OK, we may proceed to the following stage some days later.
- --
The animal is inserted under a transparent dome and air is slowly (tens of minutes) pumped out.
If all signs are OK we may start the following stage. - -- Investigate how long time the animal can be in vacuum? How quick we can decompress and compress? How long the animal may live on artificial nutrition? And so on.
- -- Design the lung (oxygenator) devices for people which will be small, light, cheap, reliable, safe, which delete gases from blood (especially those that will cause `bends' in the case of rapid decompression, and work on decreasing the decompressing time).
- -- Testing the new devices on animals then human volunteers.
- -- The lung (oxygenator) devices are small, light, cheaper by tens to hundreds times than the current space suit.
- -- It does not limit the activity of a working man.
- -- The working time increases by some times. (less heat buildup, more supplies per a given carry weight, etc)
- -- It may be widely used in the Earth for existing in poison atmospheres (industry, war), fire, rescue operation, under water, etc.
- -- Method allows permanently testing (controlling) the blood and immediately to clean it from any poison and gases, wastes, and so on. That may save human lives in critical medical situations and in fact it may become standard emergency equipment.
- -- For quick save the human life.
- -- Pilots for high altitude flights.
- -- The offered system is a perfect rescue system because you turn off from environment and exist INDEPENDENTLY from the environment. (Obviously excluding outside thermal effects, fires etc--but for example, many fire deaths are really smoke inhalation deaths; the bodies are often not burned to any extent. In any case it is much easier to shield searing air from the lungs if you are not breathing it in!)
3.Electrostatic Levitation on Planet and Artificial Gravity for Space Ships and Asteroids*
See also [1] Ch.15.
Introduction
People have dreamed about a flying freely in the air without any apparatus for many centuries. In ancient books we can find pictures of flying angels or God sitting on clouds or in heaven. At the present time you can see the same pictures on walls in many churches.
Brief description of innovation
- -- No very expensive highways are necessary. Rivers, lakes, forests, and buildings are not obstacles for this method.
- -- In given regions (Figs. 3-1 and 3-2) people (and cars) can move at high speeds (man up 70 km/hour and cars up to 200-400 km/hour) in any direction using simple equipment (small balls under their clothing and small engines (Fig. 3- 2a,b,c)). They can perform vertical takeoffs and landings.
- -- People can reduce their weight and move at high speed, jump a long distance, and lift heavy weights.
- -- Building high altitude homes will be easier.
A space ship (hotel) definitely needs artificial gravity. Any slight carelessness in space can result in the cosmonaut, instruments or devices drifting away from the space ship. Presently, they are connected to the space ship by cables, but this is not comfortable for working. Science knows only two methods of producing artificial gravity and attractive forces: rotation of space ship and magnetism. Both methods are bad. The rotation creates artificial gravity only inside the space ship (hotel). Observation of space from a rotating ship is very difficult. The magnetic force is only effective over a very short distance. The magnets stick together and a person has to expend a large effort to move (it is the same as when you are moving on a floor smeared with glue).
Projects
1. Levitation Highway (Fig.1d).
.
2. Levitating tube highway
.
3. Charged ball located on a high mast or tower
.
4. Levitation in low cumulonimbus and thunderstorm clouds
5. Artificial gravity on space ship's or asteroids
6. Charged ball as an accumulator of energy and rocket engine
Discussion
4. A New Method of Atmospheric Reentry for Space Ships?
In recent years, industry has produced high-temperature fiber and whiskers. The author examined the atmospheric reentry of the USA Space Shuttles and proposed the use of high temperature tolerant parachute for atmospheric air braking. Though it is not large, a light parachute decreases Shuttle speed from 8 km/s to 1 km/s and Shuttle heat flow by 3 - 4 times. The parachute surface is opened with backside so that it can emit the heat radiation efficiently to Earth-atmosphere. The temperature of parachute is about 1000-1300o C. The carbon fiber is able to keep its functionality up to a temperature of 1500-2000o C. There is no conceivable problem to manufacture the parachute from carbon fiber. The proposed new method of braking may be applied to the old Space Shuttles as well as to newer spacecraft designs.
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On a planet without atmosphere, sustaining human life is very difficult and dangerous, especially during short sunlit period when low temperature prevails. To counter these environmental stresses, the author offer an innovative artificial "Evergreen" dome, an inflated hemisphere with interiors continuously providing a climate like that of Florida, Italy and Spain. The "Evergreen" dome theory is developed, substantiated by computations that show it is possible for current technology to construct and heat large enclosed volumes inexpensively. Specifically, a satisfactory result is reached by using high altitude magnetically supported sunlight reflectors and a special double thin film as an enclosing skin, which concentrates solar energy inside the dome while, at the same time, markedly decreasing the heat loss to exterior space. Offered design may be employed for settlements on the Moon, Mars, asteroids and satellites.
The real development of outer space (permanent human life in space) requires two conditions: all-sufficient space settlement and artificial life conditions close to those prevailing currently on the Earth. (Such a goal extends what is already being attempted in the Earth-biosphere--for example at the 1st Advanced Architecture Contest, "Self-Sufficient Housing", sponsored by the Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia, Spain, during 2006.) The first condition demands production of all main components needed for human life: food, oxidizer, and energy within the outer space and Solar System body colony.
6. AB Method of Irrigation on planet without Water
(Closed-loop Water Cycle)*
Author methodically researched a revolutionary Macro-engineering idea for a closed-loop freshwater irrigation and in this chapter it is unveiled in some useful detail. We offer to cover a given site by a thin, enclosure film (with controlled heat conductivity and clarity) located at an altitude of 50 - 300 m. The film is supported, at its working altitude, by small additional induced air over-pressuring, and anchored to the ground by thin cables. We show that this closed dome allows full control of the weather within at a given planetary surface region (the day is always fine, it will rain only at night, no strong winds). The average Earth (white cloudy) reflectance equals 0.3 - 0.5. Consequently, Earth does lose about 0.3 - 0.5 of the maximum potential incoming solar energy. The dome (having control of the clarity of film and heat conductivity) converts the cold regions to controlled subtropics, hot deserts and desolate wildernesses to prosperous regions blessed temperate climate. This is, today, a realistic and cheap method of evaporation-economical irrigation and virtual weather control on Earth!
Liquid crystal memory units with extensive capacity were used in the USA's Space Shuttle navigation equipment. Worth noting also is the fact that many common fluids are, in fact, liquid crystals. Soap, for instance, is a liquid crystal, and forms a variety of LC phases depending on its concentration in water.
- -- Method does not need large amounts of constant input freshwater for irrigation;
- -- Low cost of inflatable filmic Dome per area reclaimed: (10 - 30 cents/m2);
- -- Control of inside temperature is total;
- -- Usable in very hot and cool climate regions;
- -- Covered region is not at risk from exterior weather;
- -- Possibility of flourishing crops even with a sterile hydroponics soil;
- -- 2 - 3 harvests each year; without farmers' extreme normal risks.
- -- Rich harvests, at that.
- -- Converting deserts, desolate wildernesses, taiga, tundra, permafrost terrain, and the ocean into gardens;
- -- Covering towns and cities with low-cost, even picturesque domes;
- -- Using the dome cover for income-generating neighborhood illumination, picture displays, movies and videos as well as paid advertising.
7. Artificial Explosion of Sun and AB-Criterion for Solar Detonation*
This reaction runs slowly within the Sun because its temperature is low (relative to the needs of nuclear reactions). If we create higher temperature and density in a limited region of the solar interior, we may be able to produce self-supporting detonation thermonuclear reactions that spread to the full solar volume. This is analogous to the triggering mechanisms in a thermonuclear bomb. Conditions within the bomb can be optimized in a small area to initiate ignition, then spread to a larger area, allowing producing a hydrogen bomb of any power. In the case of the Sun certain targeting practices may greatly increase the chances of an artificial explosion of the Sun. This explosion would annihilate the Earth and the Solar System, as we know them today.
The present solar temperature is far lower than needed for propagating a runaway thermonuclear reaction. In Sun core the temperature is only ~13.6 MK (0.0012 MeV). The Coulomb barrier for protons (hydrogen) is more then 0.4 MeV. Only very small proportions of core protons take part in the thermonuclear reaction (they use a tunnelling effect). Their energy is in balance with energy emitted by Sun for the Sun surface temperature 5785 K (0.5 eV).
Results of research
The p-p reaction runs slowly within the Sun because its temperature is low (relative to the temperatures of nuclear reactions). If we create higher temperature and density in a limited region of the solar interior, we may be able to produce self-supporting, more rapid detonation thermonuclear reactions that may spread to the full solar volume. This is analogous to the triggering mechanisms in a thermonuclear bomb. Conditions within the bomb can be optimized in a small area to initiate ignition, build a spreading reaction and then feed it into a larger area, allowing producing a `solar hydrogen bomb' of any power--but not necessarily one whose power can be limited. In the case of the Sun certain targeting practices may greatly increase the chances of an artificial explosion of the entire Sun. This explosion would annihilate the Earth and the Solar System, as we know them today.
The temperature and pressure in this solar plasma may achieve a temperature that rises to billions of degrees in which all thermonuclear reactions are accelerated by many thousands of times. This power output would further heat the solar plasma. Further increasing of the plasma temperature would, in the worst case, climax in a solar explosion.
The possibility of initial ignition of the Sun significantly increases if the thermonuclear bomb is exploded under the solar photosphere surface. The incoming bomb has a diving speed near the Sun of about 617 km/sec. Warhead protection to various depths may be feasible -ablative cooling which evaporates and protects the warhead some minutes from the solar temperatures. The deeper the penetration before detonation the temperature and density achieved greatly increase the probability of beginning thermonuclear reactions which can achieve explosive breakout from the current stable solar condition.
The author A.A. Bolonkin originated the AB Criterion, which allows estimating the condition required for the artificial explosion of the Sun.
A satellite system near Earth for destroying the rockets moving to the Sun may be a better solution, but with more complications, especially since it would by definition also constitute an effective missile defense and space blockade. Its' very presence may help spark a war. Or if only partially complete but under construction, it may invite preemption, perhaps on the insane scale that we here discuss...
The first information about this work was published in [4] Ch.10, Ref. [15]. This work produced the active Internet discussion in [4] Ch.10, Ref. [19]. Among the raised questions were the following:
Summary
Many works noted below the reader can find on site Cornel University <http://arxiv.org/>, sites <http://www.scribd.com> , <http://www.archive.org> seach "Bolonkin" , <http://bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm> and in Conferences 2002-2006 (see, for example, Conferences AIAA, <http://aiaa.org/> , search "Bolonkin" ) .
Aerospace", NOVA, 2008.http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057071 .
http://www.archive.org/details/NewConceptsIfeasAndInnovationsInAerospaceTechnologyAndHumanSciences
http://www.archive.org/details/Macro-projectsEnvironmentsAndTechnologies
http://www.archive.org/details/NewTechnologiesAndRevolutionaryProjects .
Published also in [1] Ch.19 (2005); in [4] Ch.6, (2009).
Propulsion Conference, 10-13 July 2005, Tucson, Arizona, USA. See also [1], Ch.15 pp.281-302.
http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/0712/0712.3935.pdf . See also [3] Ch.1, pp. 3-34.
11. Bolonkin A.A., Artificial Explosion of Sun and AB-Criterion for Solar Detonation. See [4] Ch.10.
http://arxiv.org/ftp/physics/papers/0701/0701073.pdf
American Journal of Engineering and Applied Science, Vol. 2, #4, 2009, pp.683-693.
15. Bolonkin A.A., (2009). Femtotechnology: Design of the Strongest AB-Matter for
http://www.scipub.org/fulltext/ajeas/ajeas22501-514.pdf .
http://www.scribd.com/doc/25883886 .
16 Mb. http://www.archive.org/details/Life.Science.Future.biographyNotesResearchesAndInnovations,
http://www.scribd.com/doc/48229884,
http://www.archive.org/details/RobotAsPersonpersonhood.ThreePrerequisitesOrLawsOfRobots
http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/0903/0903.5008.pdf .
English and Russian) (http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1011/1011.1841.pdf ).
(http://www.scribd.com/doc/40640088/).
the Creative Commons license. http://wikipedia.org .
One of project space ship
Space launcher Orion
Part B
Projects solvable by current technology
Chapter 1B
Aerial Gas Pipeline
Abstract
Introduction
Natural gas is a gaseous fossil fuel consisting primarily of methane (CH4) but including significant quantities of ethane, propane, butane, and pentane--heavier hydrocarbons removed prior to use as a consumer fuel --as well as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, helium and hydrogen sulfide. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, it must undergo extensive processing to remove almost all materials other than methane. The by-products of that processing include ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons, elemental sulfur, and sometimes helium and nitrogen.
In the past, the natural gas which was recovered in the course of recovering petroleum could not be profitably sold, and was simply burned at the oil field (known as flaring). This wasteful practice is now illegal in many countries. Additionally, companies now recognize that value for the gas may be achieved with liquefied natural gas (LNG), compressed natural gas (CNG), or other transportation methods to end-users in the future. LNG carriers can be used to transport (LNG) across oceans, while tank trucks can carry liquefied or CNG over shorter distances. They may transport natural gas directly to end-users, or to distribution points such as pipelines for further transport. These may have a higher cost, requiring additional facilities for liquefaction or compression at the production point, and then gasification or decompression at end-use facilities or into a pipeline.
For natural gas.
Current pipelines.
Natural gas pipelines. The long-distance transportation of natural gas became practical in the late 1920s with improvements in pipeline technology. From 1927 to 1931 more than ten major gas pipeline systems were built in the United States. Gas pipelines in Canada connect gas fields in western provinces to major eastern cities. One of the longest gas pipelines in the world is the Northern Lights pipeline, which is 3,400 miles (5,470 kilometers) long and links the West Siberian gas fields on the Arctic Circle with locations in Eastern Europe.
Building typical ground pipeline.
Requires ground right of way and results in damage to ecology
Trans-Alaska oil pipeline.
Notice the damage.
The main differences of the suggested Gas Transportation Method and Installation from current pipelines are:
- -- The tubes are made from a lightweight flexible thin film (no steel or solid rigid hard material).
- -- The gas pressure into the film tube equals an atmospheric pressure or less more (<1.5 atm.) (The current gas pipelines have pressure up 220 atmospheres.).
- -- The great majority of the pipeline [except compressor (pumping) and driver stations] is located in atmosphere at a high altitude (0.1-6 km) and does not have a rigid compression support (pillar, pylon, tower, bearer, etc.) though it may be tethered. The current pipelines are located on the ground, under ground or under water.
- -- The transported gas contained within the pipeline supports the gas pipeline at high altitude.
- -- Wing devices may make additional lift.
- -- The gas pipeline can be used as an air transport system for oil and solid payloads with a high speed for each container shipped up of 250 m/sec.
- -- The gas pipeline can be used as for a large scale transfer of mechanical energy.
Description of innovation
- -- The suggested gas pipeline is made from a thin film which is hundreds times less expensive than a current ground or sea bottom gas pipeline made from steel tubes.
- -- The construction time may be decreased from years to months.
- -- There is no need to supercompress a gas (over 200 atmospheres) and spend huge energy for that.
- -- No large area of expensive user rights needed on ground surface and little surface environmental damage during the building and use of the pipeline.
- -- No surface environmental damage in case of pipeline damage during use of the pipeline.
- -- Easy to repair.
Fig.5a. Building the offered gas pipeline by helicopter. Notation: 1 - gas pipeline; 2 - delivered section of gas pipeline; 3 - deliver helicopter; 4 - support ship; 5 - tensile links.
- -- Less energy used in gas transit and delivery.
- -- Additional possibility of payload delivery in both directions.
- -- If the pipeline is located at high altitude, it is more difficult for terrorist diversion and for petty or large scale gas stealing by third parties when the suggested pipeline cross the third country (for example, unknown parties in the Ukraine typically are said to steal 10-15% amount of the gas from Russian pipelines transiting the Ukraine.).
- -- The suggested transportation system may be also used for a transfer of mechanical energy from one driver station to another, more cheaply than electric power could be sent.
Methods of the estimation of the altitude gas pipeline
- -- Gas delivery capability is
Result of computation of the gas pressure in relation to the distance between pump station and gas speed are presented in Fig. 7.
- -- Lift force F of each one meter length of pipeline is
Fig. 6. Delivery capacity of gas by the offered floating gas pipeline by gas speed and tube diameter.
Fig.7. Gas pressure versus the distance between pump stations for different gas speeds.
Fig.8. Lift force of each1 meter of methane gas bearing tube in relation to tube diameter.
Fig. 9. Film thickness via gas pressure and the safety film stress for the tube diameter D = 10 m.
- -- Weight of one meter of pipeline is
- -- Air drag D of pipeline from side wind is
- -- Needed pumping power is
Fig.10. Pumping power versus the volume consumption and gas pressure.
We may also view that pumping power equals
Load container transportation system mounted under pipeline.
- -- Load delivery capability by wingless container is
- -- Friction force of wingless containers (using wheels or rollers on a monorail) is
between driver stations.
- -- Air drag of a container is
- -- The lift force of a winged container is
, (12)
is air dynamic pressure, N/m2; Scw is wing area of winged container, m2.
Fig.11. Load delivery via the tube diameter and speed payload by wingless containers for k=0.5. Delivery by winged container may be some times more. The load delivery of a conventional two-line railroad is about only 15-30 million tons/year. But a railroad's capital cost is more expensive by many times than the offered high-speed aerial transport system. The big (diameter 1.4 m) oil pipeline has delivery capability of about 100 million tons/year.
- -- The drag of a winged container may be computed by equation
, (13)
, (14)
, (15)
, (16)
Mega-Project
(Tube diameter equals D = 10 m, gas pipeline has the suspended- load transport system, the project is suitable for many regions)
Cost of altitude gas pipeline
Table 1. Design and current pipelines.
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Load transportation System
The cost of 1 km of 1 line railway is about $(1-2) Million/km, (without engines and tank cars). That means the railway is ~ 400 times more expensive then the offered air load transport system.
References
- -- A.A. Bolonkin, Patent Application "Method for Gas and Payload Transportation at Long Distance and Installations for It", Application to USPTO # 09/978,507 of 10/18/2001.
- -- A.A. Bolonkin, Patent Application "Method Transportation of Vehicles and Installations for It", Application to USPTO # 09/893,060 of 6/28/2001, patent US #6,494,143 B1.
- -- A.A. Bolonkin, Air Cable Transport System, Journal of Aircraft, Vol. 30, No.2, Mach-April 2003, pp. 265-259.
- -- A.A. Bolonkin and R.B. Cathcart, A Low-Cost Natural Gas/Freshwater Aerial Pipeline. http://arxiv.org search "Bolonkin".
- -- A.A. Bolonkin, Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight, Elsevier, London, 2006, 488 pgs.
- -- A.A. Bolonkin, New Concepts, Ideas, and Innovations in Aerospace, Technology and Human Sciences, NOVA, 2008, 480 pgs.
- -- A.A. Bolonkin, Macro-Projects: Technology and Environment. NOVA, 470 pgs., 2009.
- -- A. A. Bolonkin, at el., Dead Sea. At print, 2008.
- -- K.K.Kienow (ed), Pipeline Design and Installation, 1990.
- -- Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia.
- -- M.L.Navvar (ed), The Piping Handbook, 6th ed.,1992.
- -- P.Tullis, Hydraulics of Pipelines, 1989.
- -- Designed oil and gas fields, main pipelines, refineries, and gas processing plants, Alberta, Canada, 1976, Map.Div..
- -- Main line natural gas sales to industrial users (microform). US Dep. of Energy Readex Microfiche E 3.11/14 7V 1979.
- -- C.W. Byrer and R.D. Malone, Preceedings of the Natural Gas Conference: Emerging technologies for the Natural Gas Industry, Houston, Texas, U.S. Department of Energy, Federal Energy Technology Center< March 1997. (Full text available on the web at: http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/97/97ng/ng97_toc.html
- -- Oil and Gas R&D Programs: Securing the U.S. energy, environmental, and economic future, U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy, Office of Natural Gas and Petroleum Technology, March 1997.
- -- Wikipedia. Some background material in this article is gathered from Wikipedia under the Creative Commons license. . http://wikipedia.org .
Chapter 2B
Production Fresh Water by Exhaust Gas of Electric and Heat Plants
Abstract
The installation also clears the exhaust gas from ashes and soot, sulfur dioxide (SO2). The water having the high concentration carbon dioxide (CO2) may be used for growing algae for biofuel and feed.
Introduction
Industry of any country are uses millions tons of fuel annually (2005-2007, Oil & Gas Journal, World Oil).
2. Gas: 19 million barrel equivalent used per day.
3. Coal: 29 million barrel equivalent used per day.
Exhaust gas from an industrial plant
Description of offered method
The third version (Fig.1c) has the underwater heater (evaporator) 1 and underwater cooler 11. The exhaust gas is blown out through tubes having a lot of small holes. The tubes located under water layer 5 - 10 cm. The evaporator is layer of the sea water. The hot gas evaporates sea water. The hot mixture gas has temperature 100oC and contains about 70% water vapor. Gas is blown out through tubes having a lot of small holes and located in the cooler. The tubes located under water layer 5 - 10 cm. The underwater cooler contains the fresh water and has a large surface. The gas temperature decreases up 30oC. The 95% of vapor condenses into fresh water. The water cools in open reservoir.
Computations and Estimations
- --
Amount of water in atmosphere. Amount of water in a given body of air depends upon temperature and humidity. For relative humidity = 100% the maximum partial pressure of water vapor is shown in Table 1.
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, (1)
Fig. 2. Amount of water in 1 m3 of air versus air temperature and relative humidity (rh). t1 = 0 oC.
Heat of combustion (MJ/kg):
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Project
getting the freshwater by exhaust gases of the electric plants used natural gas.
2) The natural gas has the heat capability 45в106 J/kg. Efficiency coefficient of typical electric plant is ? = 0.3. Consequently, the exhaust gas contains 70% of fuel energy,
Q =0.7 в45в106=31.5 MJ.
3) The vapor thermal capacity is r = 2260 kJ/kg, the water heat capacity is cp = 4.19 kJ/kg/K. That means about 87% of the gas energy may be used for evaporation of sea water. Mass of vapor is
.
Summary result: 1 kg of natural gas can produce about 2+12 = 14 kg of fresh water.
4) Requested sea water for cooling (from 100 to 30oC) is
.
5) Let as take the heat transfer condense coefficient k = 2500 W/m2K (water vapor - water) [23] the requested gas radiator surface for abarage gradient of temperature 70/2 = 35C is
.
6) Productivity. The 1 kg/s of fuel is equivalent of plant power P = ?Q = 0.3в45в106 = 13.5 MW.
The average electric plant has power 2000 - 5000 MW. If the electric plant has power P = 3000 MW the fuel consumption is 3000/13.5 = 222 kg/s and the fresh water production is
.
Note: That is 2.8 times more then the most power desalted plant in the USA in Tampa Bay, Florida, which began desalinating 25 million U.S. gallons (95,000 mЁ) of water per day in December 2007.
7) Economics. The cost of installation is about $500K - $1000K. Lifespan of the installation is 10 - 25 years. Maintenance about $50K/year. Power of ventilators is 50 kW. Production cost of fresh water is $0.03-0.08/m3. If retail price is $0.5/m3, profit exceeds $50M/year.
Conclusion
References
(The reader find some author's works in http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm, http://Arxiv.org Search: "Bolonkin" and books: Bolonkin A.A., Non-Rocket Space Launch and flight:, Elsevier, 2006, 488 pgs., Bolonkin A.A., "New Concepts, ideas, and Innovations in Technology and Human life", NOVA, 2008, 502 pg., Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology, NOVA, 2009, 536 pgs)
- -- Bolonkin, A.A., (2002), "Optimal Inflatable Space Towers of High Height". COSPAR-02 C1.1-0035-02, 34th Scientific Assembly of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), The World Space Congress - 2002, 10-19 Oct 2002, Houston, Texas, USA.
- -- Bolonkin, A.A., (2003), "Optimal Inflatable Space Towers with 3-100 km Height", JBIS, Vol. 56, No 3/4, pp. 87-97, 2003.
- -- Bolonkin A.A.,(2004a), "Kinetic Space Towers and Launchers `, JBIS, Vol. 57, No 1/2, pp. 33-39, 2004.
- -- Bolonkin A.A., (2004b), Utilization of Wind Energy at High Altitude, AIAA-2004-5705, AIAA-2004-5756, International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference at Providence., RI, Aug.16-19. 2004. USA. http://arxiv.org .
- -- Bolonkin A.A., (2006a), Optimal Solid Space Tower, AIAA-2006-7717. ATIO Conference, 25-27 Sept. 2006, Wichita, Kansas, USA. http://arxiv.org , search "Bolonkin".
- -- Bolonkin A., Cathcart R., (2006b). A Low-Cost Natural Gas/Freshwater Aerial Pipeline. http://arxiv.org , search "Bolonkin".
- -- Bolonkin A.A., (2006c) Cheap Textile Dam Protection of Seaport Cities against Hurricane Storm Surge Waves, Tsunamis, and Other Weather-Related Floods. http://arxiv.org , search "Bolonkin".
- -- Bolonkin A.A., (2006d) Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight, Elsevier, 2006, 488 ps.
- -- Bolonkin A., Cathcart R., (2006e). The Java-Sumatra Aerial Mega-Tramway, http://arxiv.org .
- -- Bolonkin A., Cathcart R., (2006f). Inflatable Evergreen Polar Zone Dome (EPZD) Settlements. http://arxiv.org , search "Bolonkin".
- -- Bolonkin, A.A. and R.B. Cathcart, (2006g) "A Cable Space Transportation System at the Earth's Poles to Support Exploitation of the Moon", Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 59: 375-380.
- -- Bolonkin A., (2006h). Control of Regional and Global Weather. http://arxiv.org , search "Bolonkin".
- -- Bolonkin A., Cathcart R., (2006i). Antarctica: A Southern Hemisphere Windpower Station? http://arxiv.org , search "Bolonkin".
- -- Bolonkin, A.A. and R.B. Cathcart (2006j), "Inflatable `Evergreen' dome settlements for Earth's Polar Regions", Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy DOI 10.1007/s10098-006-0073-4.
- -- Cathcart R., Bolonkin A., (2006k),The Golden Gate Textile Barrier: Preserving California Bay of San Francisco from a Rising North Pacific Ocean. http://arxiv.org. Search: "Bolonkin".
- -- Cathcart R., Bolonkin A., (2006l), Ocean Terracing, http://arxiv.org . Search: "Bolonkin".
- -- Bolonkin A.A., (2006m), Extraction of Freshwater and Energy from Atmosphere. http://arxiv.org. Search: "Bolonkin".
- -- Bolonki A.A., Cathcart R.,(2008). Macro-Projects:Technology and Inviroment, NOVA, 470 p.
- -- Book (2006),: Macro-Engineering - A challenge for the future. Collection of articles. Eds. V. Badescu, R. Cathcart and R. Schuiling, Springer, (2006). (Collection contains Bolonkin's articles: Space Towers; Cable Anti-Gravitator, Electrostatic Levitation and Artificial Gravity).
- -- Gleick, Peter; et al. (1996). in Stephen H. Schneider: Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather. Oxford University Press.
- -- Encyclopedia of Desalination and water and Water Resources
- -- Encyclopedia of Earth - Surface water management .
- -- http://www.cheresources.com/uexchangers.shtml .
Chapter 3B
Solar Distiller*
Abstract
-------------------
Introduction
Fig.1a. World Precipitation and Average Rainfall
In the last decade, most new facilities used reverse osmosis technology, membrane processes which utilize semi-permeable membranes and pressure to separate salts from water. These processes typically use less energy than thermal distillation, which has led to a reduction in overall desalination costs over the past decade. Desalination remains energy intensive, however, and future costs will continue to depend on the price of both energy and desalination technology, examples of which include: capacity and type of facility, location, feed water, labor, energy, financing and concentrate disposal.
Fig.2a. Ashkelon Seawater Reverse Osmosis (SWRO) Desalination Plant, Israel.
Productivity 50M m3/year (2006). Cost USD $250M. (Picture has 34K).
Fig.3a. The Tampa Bay, Florida (USA) desalination plant: A series of failures and costly delays.
25 million gallons of fresh drinking water per day (34M m3/year) so desperately needed in the parched region even after it was repaired and reopened in 2007 as "fully operational". In late 2007, more than 7 years after construction began, the plant finally became operational, but the price of construction rose to $158 million and the cost of water from the plant for consumers went from an estimated $677 to $1,100 per acre foot (1 acre = 0.405 he = 4.8 yd2).
Renewable resources, although ecologically friendly, add to the operating costs of desalination. However, recent experience in Perth and Sydney indicates that the additional cost is acceptable to communities because it allows them to augment their water supply without doing environmental harm to the atmosphere. As a result, The Gold Coast desalination plant, a plant soon to be built in Australia, will be powered entirely from fossil fuel. At a rate of over 4 kWh per cubic meter to produce, this will be the most expensive source of water in Australia. One way to fund the exorbitant cost of desalination is raising water prices. The desalination plant in Adelaide, Australia located at Port Stanvac, for instance, will be funded by raising water rates to achieve full cost recovery.
The tubes are separated into sections (fig.2) connected by unidirectional back valves on top (14) and on bottom (15). In the top tube layer, the top valves push the wet air vapor (12) in one direction. The lower valves pass the sea water (13) in the opposite direction. The lower valves (17) pass the condensate (fresh water) into under water tubes and to ground or fresh water storage (16). The sea waves then compress and decompress the inflatable tube sections and pumping the wet air, sea and fresh water. In addition, the wet air (vapor) and water may use small electric pumps (ventilators) for circulation.
Fig.1. Solar Sea Distiller. Notation: 1 - film tubes; 2 - sea; 3 - coast; 4 - solar radiation; 5 - fresh water tube and pump; 6 -fresh water storage.
Fig.2. Longitudinal Cross section of Solar Sea Distiller. Notations: 11 - section of flexible tube; 12 - air wet (vapor) flow; 13 - sea water flow; 14, 15, 17 - unidirectional fluid valves (other names: one direct (direction) valves, back valves, inverted valves, return valves, holding valves) ; 16 - fresh water; 17 - back valve; 18, 19 - fresh water flow; 20 - sea surface; 21 - sea; 22 - hear protection; 23 - solar radiation; 24 - lower tube; 25 - air flow in lower tube layer.
Fig.3. Diametrical cross section of Solar Sea Distiller. Notations: 30 - heat reflector; 31 - top film tubes; 32 - lower film tubes; 33 - transparent top part of top tube; 34 - black lower part of top tube; 35 - sea water; 36 - fresh water in lower tubes; 37 - rain; 38 - rain fresh water tube; 39 - back valve; 40 - fresh water storage; 30 - sea surface; 23 - solar radiation; 18, 19 - tubes for fresh and rain water.
Fig.5. Typical action of back valve
(one direction valve, inverted valve, (non) return valve, holding valve). Notation: 41 - valve, 42 - string.
The top surface of the distiller is protected from the strong sea waves by special inflatable barrier 43 (fig.6). When a top of sea wave is over the barrier tube (43) the sea water flows into space 45 and through the back valve (44) goes back into the sea.
Notations: 43 - inflatable barrier tube; 44 - back valve; 45 - internal space between the barrier tube and Distiller; 46 - water of a sea wave. Work: when a top of sea wave is over the barrier tube 43, the sea water flows into space 45 and through the back valve 44 goes back to the sea.
The Solar Desalinization System can also work on land. In this instance, the lower tube layer is cooled by air. However the productivity significantly decreases. An inexpensive portable version of the offered system may be included in soldier or travelers accoutrements for production of fresh water in the desert so they would able to distill fresh water from bad water or urine.
Fig.7. Simplest collector of rain fresh water on sea and dew. Notations:; 51 - support float (optional); 52 - small plumb; 53 - rain water tube; 54 - back valve, 55 - inflatable storage of rain and dew fresh water; 56 - thin film; 43 - barrier against sea waves; 23 - rain.
Work: the rain and dew water flows to the fresh water storage and pumps to customer.
Summary of our system's innovations and advantages:
- -- Located on the sea and, the system does not require expensive coastal land surface;
- -- The devise is made from inexpensive thin film, making the system more affordable than the conventional reverse osmotic or multi flash plants;
- -- Installation uses solar energy which produces fresh water at a cost close to zero;
- -- Sea waves are used for water and wet air circulation;
- -- The system may be delivered anyplace on water and easily transported so that it can be an at sea source of fresh water to ships along shipping lanes;
- -- Preassembled or disassembled, it is very compact and easily stored in conventional storehouses;
- -- The installation may be also used for collection the rain water and dew water;
- -- The Solar Sea Distiller is environmentally friendly as it does not dump brine in limited place which is hazardous to marine life.
Then the 1 m2 of Earth surface will receive energy in one day
E = 700в8в60в60 - 20.106 J/m2/day or Ey - 6.109 J/m2/year. (1)
For heating 1 kg water from 20oC to 100oC and its evaporation it is necessary energy (heat)
, (2)
where cp =4.18 kJ/kg/K is thermal capacity of water; ?T is change of temperature, K; r = 2260 kJ/kg is vapor capacity of water.
The theoretically 1 m2 of Earth surface can evaporate in solar day about
. (3)
1) the area 100в100 m will produce 77 m3/day or 23,100 m3/year;
2) the area 1в1 km will produce 7700 m3/day or 2.3в106 m3/year and
3) the area 10в10 km will produce 770,000 m3/day or 230в106 m3/year (That is productivity of a big desalination plant). If one person, on the average, requires 10 liter per day, that is enough for 0, 64 million people, or for irrigation 23,000 hectors ground (1 hector = 100в100 m of area).
Table 1. Maximum partial pressure of water vapor in atmosphere for given air temperature
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, (4)
The value 2.5 kW/m2 is more then solar heat flow = 1 kW/m2. That means the water will cool down the wet air into low tubes.
The Solar Desalinization System is the most advanced and efficient desalination system to date. The Solar Desalinization System is (1) inexpensive, (2) does not require the expensive coastal land surface since located on sea, (3) does not require energy except for pumping the fresh water to customers and (4) needs minimal amount of service workers. Moreover, the minimal production costs qualify our system as by far the least expensive fresh water production method. In addition, the preassembled kits may be conveniently stored in conventional storehouse and may be easily moved (transported, delivered) to any place. Related works are in references [Bolonkin, 2002-2007], [Cathcart, 2006a,b], [Encyclopedia, 1996, 2000, 2001], [Krinker, 2009], [Wikipedia].
(The reader may find some of these articles at the web page: http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm , http://arxiv.org , http://www.scribd.com search "Bolonkin", in the book "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier, London, 2006, 488 pgs., in book "New Concepts, Ideas, Innovations in Aerospace, Technology and Human Science", NOVA, 2007, 502 pgs., and in book "Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology, NOVA, 2008, 536 pgs.)
Chapter 4B
High Altitude Long Distance Cheap Aerial Antenna
Current cell telephone network emplacements are very expensive. Companies pay large sums for nets of towers, masts, territory, rent roofs of high buildings, to emplace many complex types of equipment. The author offers a new tethered antenna located at high altitude (1 - 12 km), which serves a gigantic territory (radius 100-400 km). New antenna is cheap, does not require a large footprint of territory, is mobile and can be installed in 30 minutes. This antenna may be also useful in emergency and military situations.
Key words: high altitude antenna, cheap antenna, long distance antenna.
Current Antennas
Radio and TV Antenna. An antenna (or aerial) is a transducer designed to transmit or receive electromagnetic waves. In other words, antennas convert electromagnetic waves into electrical currents and vice versa. Antennas are used in systems such as radio and television broadcasting, point-to-point radio communication, wireless LAN, radar, and space exploration. Antennas are most commonly employed in air or outer space, but can also be operated under water or even through soil and rock at certain frequencies for short distances.
A common antenna is a vertical rod a quarter of a wavelength long. Such antennas are simple in construction, usually inexpensive, and both radiate in and receive from all horizontal directions (omnidirectional). One limitation of this antenna is that it does not radiate or receive in the direction in which the rod points. This region is called the antenna blind cone or null.
- -- Omni-directional (radiates equally in all directions), such as a vertical rod or
- -- Directional (radiates more in one direction than in the other).
Fig.1a (left) Cell tower in Morrisville, North Carolina.
Fig.2a (right) Cell site tower in the Philippines.
.PNG){kind=link}
Cell Telephones. A mobile phone or mobile (also called cellphone and handphone, as well as cell phone, wireless phone, cellular phone, cell, cellular telephone, mobile telephone or cell telephone) is a long-range, electronic device used for mobile voice or data communication over a network of specialized base stations known as cell sites. In addition to the standard voice function of a mobile phone, telephone, current mobile phones may support many additional services, and accessories, such as SMS for text messaging, email, packet switching for access to the Internet, gaming, Bluetooth, infrared, camera with video recorder and MMS for sending and receiving photos and video, MP3 player, radio and GPS. Most current mobile phones connect to a cellular network consisting of switching points and base stations (cell sites) owned by a mobile network operator (the exception is satellite phones, which are mobile but not cellular).
The International Telecommunication Union estimated that mobile cellular subscriptions worldwide would reach approximately 4.1 billion by the end of 2008. Mobile phones have gained increased importance in the sector of Information and communication technologies for development in the 2000s.
The largest categories of mobile services are music, picture downloads, videogaming, adult entertainment, gambling, video/TV.
The increased capacity in a cellular network, compared with a network with a single transmitter, comes from the fact that the same radio frequency can be reused in a different area for a completely different transmission. If there is a single plain transmitter, only one transmission can be used on any given frequency.
The terms "mast" and "tower" are often used interchangeably. However, in structural engineering terms, a tower is a self-supporting or cantilevered structure, while a mast is held up by stays or guys.
Masts tend to be cheaper to build but require an extended area surrounding them to accommodate the stay blocks. Towers are more commonly used in cities where land is in short supply.
In some cases, it is possible to install transmitting antennas on the roofs of tall buildings. In North America, for instance, there are transmitting antennas on the Empire State Building, the Sears Tower, and formerly on the World Trade Center towers. When the buildings collapsed, several local TV and radio stations were knocked off the air until backup transmitters could be put into service. Such facilities also exist in Europe, particularly for portable radio services and low-power FM radio stations.
Many people view bare cellphone towers as ugly and an intrusion into their neighbourhoods. Even though people increasingly depend upon cellular communications, they are opposed to the bare towers spoiling otherwise scenic views. Many companies offer to 'hide' cellphone towers as trees, church towers, flag poles, water tanks and other features.[2] There are many providers that offer these services as part of the normal tower installation and maintenance service. These are generally called "stealth towers" or "stealth installations".
|Tall structures in excess of certain legislated heights are often equipped with aircraft warning lamps, usually red, to warn pilots of the structure's existence.
Table 1a. Structures (past or present) taller than 600 m (1,969 ft)
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Structural type |
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Arab Emirates |
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17 January 2009 |
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sion |
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on August 8, 1991 during guy wire exchange |
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North Dakota |
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North Dakota |
on February 14, 1968 and on April 6, 1997 |
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Cost of Radio and TV towers and cell towers.
Some information about wind energy
Current cell telephone network coverage is very expensive. The region of efficiency is significantly dependant upon the altitude of the transmission antenna. Results of computations (radius of efficiency via antenna altitude) are presented in fig.1. As you see only four 10 km high antennas can serve the territory 1.44 million square km. (0.56 ml2). For comparison in Table 1 it is given the territory (area) and population of some countries. All noted countries can be covered by 4 - 8 of 10-km high altitude cheap antennas.
Companies pay large money for networks of towers, masts, territory, rents of roofs of high buildings, many complex types of equipment which must be duplicated many more times than necessary than the alternate scenario where fewer, higher bases for the equipment would enable doing more coverage with less capital.
A common idea toward this goal is to essay to lift an antenna by balloon or kite at altitude. But attempts to use balloons were not successful.
Authors offer a new combination antenna installation which contain a new high efficiency flight apparatus and form of air balloon which are absent these defects and can stably work in wide ranges of altitude (up to 15 km) and wind speeds (0 - 40 m/s). The new tethered antenna locates at high altitude (1 - 15 km), which serves a gigantic territory (radius of coverage is about 100 - 400 km). New antenna is cheap, requires only a small base site, is, mobile and can be installed in 30 minutes. This antenna may be also useful in emergency and military situations (fig.2).
Fig.1. Radius of line of sight vs. altitude of antenna.
Table 1. Area and Population some countries
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Fig.2. High altitude aerial antenna. Notations: 1 - special high lift air apparatus; 2 - small dirigible (air balloon) for supporting the aerial antenna at high altitude; 3 - high altitude antenna; 4 - cable; 5 - winch; 6 - illuminations and sensor of wind intensity.
Computation
Below are some computation from theory developed by authors.
, (1)
where Re = 6378 km is the Earth radius, H is the antenna's altitude. This distance approximately equals
. (2)
The result of computation is presented in fig.1.
, (3)
, (4)
. (5)
, (6)
, (7-8)
- kite drag when CL =0; ? - wing aspect ratio,
- drag fiber area,
=Hd [m2]; S - wing area [m2]; CD,f1 - cable drag coefficient.
Conclusion
Cost of the offered high altitude antenna of height 5 km (radius of coverage R=250 km) is about $1-3 million. The antenna having height up to 12 km (radius of coverage R=400 km) costs about $2-6 millions.
More detailed information about high altitude and space towers the interested reader may find in [1]-[19].
References
Many works noted below the reader can find author's site <http://bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm>, on site Cornel University <http://arxiv.org/> , <http://scribd.com> search "Bolonkin", and in Conferences 2002-2006 (see, for example, Conferences AIAA, <http://aiaa.org> , search "Bolonkin")
27 Sept.,2006, Wichita, Kansas, USA, http://arxiv.org/ftp/physics/papers/0701/0701093.pdf .
See also paper AIAA-2006-4235 by A. Bolonkin, http://aiaa.org search "Bolonkin"
10035-02, 34th Scientific Assembly of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR). The Wold Space Congress - 2002, 10 -19 Oct. 2002, Houston, Texas, USA. http://bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm
8. Book "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", by A.Bolonkin, Elsevier. 2006, Ch.9 "Kinetic Anti-Gravotator", pp. 165-186; Main idea of this Chapter was presented as papers COSPAR-02, C1.1-0035-02 and IAC-02-IAA.1.3.03, 53rd International Astronautical Congress. The World Space Congress-2002, 10-19 October 2002, Houston, TX, USA, and the full manuscript was accepted as AIAA-2005-4504, 41st Propulsion Conference, 10-12 July 2005, Tucson, AZ, USA. http://www.scribd.com/doc/24056182
43rd AIAA Joint Propulsion Conference, 8-11 July 2007, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
See also "Optimal Electrostatic Space Tower" in: http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/0704/0704.3466.pdf .
http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057071
http://www.scribd.com/doc/24057930
International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference at Providence, RI, USA, Aug.16-19,
19. Wikipedia. Some background material in this article is gathered from Wikipedia under the Creative
Commons license. http://wikipedia.org .
Chapter 5B
Suppression of Forest Fire by Helicopter without Water
Abstract
The author developed theory and methods computations and suggests some designs of the devices for so changing the helicopter airflow direction.
-------------------
Introduction
Fig.1. Typical wildfire.
Fig.2. A MAFFS-equipped Air National Guard C-130 Hercules drops fire retardant on wildfires in Southern California
Fig.3. Kern County (California) Fire Department Bell 205 dropping water on fire
2. Innovations and description.
Suppression of a forest fire by air flow at first was offered by Melchor Duran (Spain). He suggested delivering powerful fans (ventilators) to the locale of a forest fire, to install them at the fire front, turn on the ventilators (whence the energy?) and to stop the fire. That method is not practical for the following reasons:
1. The fire suppression ventilator (fan) is a big, heavy, power-hungry, expensive, immobile installation.
2. It is difficult to deliver to a forest fire front where good roads are absent.
3. The unpacking and setup takes a long time and a fire can rage over a large area faster than the fan can be moved. This could endanger crews.
4. It is difficult to move even a hypothetically effective installation from a given place to another place. 5. During fire seasons, many thousands of square kilometers or miles may need constant back and forth attention.
1. A helicopter is an already existing, paid for, ready-for-action power fan. Every major forest fire team has helicopters.
3. A helicopter has a high speed and it may be quickly delivered to fire areas and moved back and forth between ground crews preparing the cable stations at the fire fronts. This expensive asset can avoid waiting immobile while emplacements are made.
4 Any helicopter may be used as a fire helicopter by suspending of additional equipment.
For producing the horizontal flow (changing the flow from vertical to horizontal direction at near of ground) the author suggest two methods. The first method is shown in fig.4, the second method is shown in fig. 5 - 6.
Fig. 4. Deflecting the helicopter air flow by anchoring. Notations: 1 - helicopter; 2 - air flow; 4 - anchor; 5 - connection cable; 6 - forest fire; 7 - emergency disconnection (anchor) device.
The second method is shown in fig.5. In this method the two plates (deflectors) are suspended under the helicopter.
The helicopter is relocated to the fire front, opens (declines) the directed plate (fig.6) and half of the rotor flow counteracts the movement of the fire and the other half of the rotor flow blows back the frangible material that is potential fuel (dry leafs, branches, grass) far from the fire front.
Different fire tactics are possible, depending on the winds on site. For example, if the wind is weak, the helicopter can slowly fly along the fire front and not allow progression of the fire front while the forest fuel loading on the forest floor will be consumed.
The helicopter can drive away the flame to places where new fuel is scarce or absent.
If the helicopter uses the cable and the hook, it can reel the cable and drive away the flame more than on a spot basis. We can install a `perimeter cable' along the fire front and the helicopter cable can slide along this fire front `perimeter cable'.
Fig.5. Fire helicopter with suspended plates. (a) - side view; (b) - front view. Notations: 1 - conventional helicopter; 2 - helicopter rotor (propeller); 3 - suspended plates. They are reeled up after take off of helicopter and deployed downward before landing of helicopter.
Fig.6. Suppression of fire. Notations: 4 - deflected plates; 5 - deflected air flow.
1. Cheapest; because it needs only anchors (hook) or simple plates (helicopters exist already in most major fire teams).
3. Does not need water.
3. Theory of wildfire.
Fig.7. Diffusion of wildfire.
, (1)
where P is thrust, N; m is second mass of air flow, kg/m2; V is air flow speed, m/s; ? = 1.225 is air density, kg/m3; A is cross-section of air flow, m2; R is radius of helicopter rotor, m; g = 9.81 is Earth's gravity, m/s2; M is helicopter mass, kg; ? = 3.14 .
Fig.8. Air speed of wind generated under the helicopter rotor (propeller) vs. mass of helicopter and radius of the helicopter rotor.
, (2)
1) Helicopter Bell 204B. Commonly used for fire teams.
Maximal mass M = 4310 kg (9500 lb).
Power of engine 820 kW.
Capacity 1360 kg (3000 lb) or 8-9 passengers (fire team).
Cruise speed 205 km/h = 135 mph.
You can compute the air flow under this model's hovering rotor to be V = 14.3 m/s = 51.7 km/h.
2) Sikorsky S-76C++.
Maximal mass M = 5306 kg.
Capacity 12 passengers.
Speed 287 km/h .
Fig.9. Air speed of a helicopter jet under the helicopter rotor (propeller) via specific load on helicopter rotor.
3) CH-47 (military, two rotors).
Maximal mass M = 12100 kg.
Capacity 33-55 troops.
Engine power 2в2796 kW .
(3)
Discussion
The helicopter produces a strong and swift air jet. The helicopter jet in most cases is stronger than most bursts of wind speed. That means we can drive away the flame into a place where no new fuel exists and thus extinguish the fire (Bolonkin 2008).
4. Bolonkin A.A., (2006), "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier, London, 488 pages.
5. Bolonkin A.A., (2008), "New Concepts, Ideas, Innovations in Aerospace, Technology and Human Science",
NOVA, 502 pages.
6. Bolonkin A.A., Cathcart R.B., (2009), "Macro-Projects: Environment and Technology", NOVA , 536 pages.
7. Wikipedia (2009). Some background material in this article is gathered from Wikipedia under the
Creative Commons license. . http://wikipedia.org , search "Forest Fire".
Chapter 6B
AB Wind Wall
Author suggests and researches a new revolutionary method for changing the climates of entire countries or portions thereof, obtaining huge amounts of cheap water and energy from the atmosphere. In this paper is presented the idea of a cheap artificial fabric wind wall, which may cardinally change the climate of a large region or country. Additional benefits: The potential of tapping large amounts of fresh water and energy. The Walls has a parachute form and made from thin fabric (film) having heights of up to 3 - 5 km. They are located perpendicular to the main wind direction. Encountering these artificial walls, humid air (wind) rises to crest altitude, is cooled and produces rain (or rain clouds). Many natural mountains are sources of rivers, and other forms of water and power production - and artificial walls or mountains may provide these services for entire nations in the future. The wall is supported at altitude by wind, and is connected to the ground by thin cables. The author has shown (in previous works about the AB-Mountains and given articles) that this artificial wind wall allows control of the weather (rain, wind) and influences climate in a given region. This is a realistic and cheaper method of economical irrigation, getting energy and virtual weather control on Earth at the current time.
Introduction
3. Precipitation. General information about precipitation. The extant amount of water in Earth's hydrosphere in the current era is constant. The average annual layer of Earth's precipitation is about 1000 mm or 511,000 km3. 21% of this (108,000 km3) falls on land and 79% (403,000 km3) on oceans. Most of it falls between latitudes 20o North and 20o South. Both polar zones collect only 4% of Earth's precipitation. The evaporation from the World-Ocean equals 1250 mm (450,000 km3). 1120 mm returns back as precipitation and 130 mm by river inflow. The evaporation from land equals 410 mm (61,000 km3), the precipitation is 720 mm. The land loses 310 mm as river flow to the oceans (47,000 km3). These are average data. In some regions the precipitation is very different (fig.1).
Fig. 1. Distribution non-polar arid land. 78 kb
Air contains moisture, measured in grams of water per kilogram (or m3) of dry air (g/kg) or g/m3, but most commonly reported as a relative humidity percentage. How much moisture a parcel of air can hold before it becomes saturated (100% relative humidity) depends on its temperature. Warmer air has a higher capacity for holding moisture than cooler air. Because of this property of the air, one way to saturate a parcel of air is to cool it. The dew point is the temperature that a parcel needs to be cooled to for saturation to occur.
Fig.2. Orographic precipitation. After encounter with mountain the atmospheric temperature is 5 - 7 C more than the air temperature before encounter because the air temperature increases (when air pressure increases) at low altitude and vapor condences at high altitude. That air warming is an important benefit for countries which use the artificial mountains for protection from cold polar winds. 64 kb.
Wind in the troposphere and stratosphere are powerful and permanent. For example, at an altitude of 5 km, the average wind speed is about 20 M/s, at an altitude 10-12 km the wind may reach 40 m/s (at latitude of about 20-350N).
There are permanent jet streams at high altitude. For example, at H = 12-13 km and about 250N latitude. The average wind speed at its core is about 148 km/h (41 m/s). The most intensive portion, with a maximum speed 185 km/h (51 m/s) latitude 220, and 151 km/h (42 m/s) at latitude 350 in North America. On a given winter day, speeds in the jet core may exceed 370 km/h (103 m/s) for a distance of several hundred miles along the direction of the wind. Lateral wind shears in the direction normal to the jet stream may be 185 km/h per 556 km to right and 185 km/h per 185 km to the left.
The wind speed of V = 40 m/s at an altitude H = 13 km provides 64 times more energy than surface wind speeds of 6 m/s at an altitude of 10 m.
This is a gigantic renewable and free energy source. (See reference: Science and Technology, v.2, p.265).
Mountain breezes are one example of what is known more generally as a katabatic wind. These are winds driven by cold air flowing down a slope, and occur on the largest scale in Greenland and Antartica...Most often, this term refers to winds which form when air which has cooled over a high, cold plateau is set in motion and descends under the influence of gravity. Winds of this type are common in regions of Mongolia and in glaciated locations.
9. Aridity. In general terms, the climate of a locale or region is said to be arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of available water, to the extent of hindering or even preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life. As a result, environments subject to arid climates tend to lack vegetation and are called xeric or desertic.
Fig. 3. Sahara desert. 98 kb.
DESCRIPTION AND INNOVATIONS
Fig. 4. Fabric AB-Wind Wall of a semi-parachute form. a) Side view, b) Top view, d) Lift hole. Notation: 1 - wind; 2 - fabric wall, 3 - support cable (it may has support wing); 4 - water tube for rain; 5 - water electric station; 7 - control of wall height, 8 - summary drag-lift force of wall; 9 - lift hole. Wall height is about 3 - 5 km.
Fig. 5. The fabric wall is worked in widely diapason of wind direction. a) Wind is from right side; b) Wind is from left side. Notation: 1 - fabric wall; 2 - direction of wind, 3 - bend edge.
Fig. 6. Full (quadratic) parachute form of mobile AB Wind Wall. a) Side view, b) Front view, c) Wall with decreased height. Notations: 1 - wind; 2 - wall of parachute form; 3 - cords; 4 - control; 5 - safety cable; 6 - water-electric station; 7 - control of parachute height; 8 - safety valve and lift hole.
The offered Wind Wall is very sutable for ground windmills (fig. 8). The air to windward produce the high air pressure which is more than ground wind pressure (the wind speed is greater, and contained energy vastly greater, at high altitude). For the same reason the air pressure downwind of the wall is less than upwind. The conic entry to the turbine increases the wind speed and air turbine can produce a high energy.yield.
Fig. 8. Fabric Aerial Wall and Wind Turbine Station. (a) side-view, (b) front-view, (c) top view, (d) wind engine. Notation: 1-flexible fabric aerial wall, 2-tethering cables, 3-air channel, 4-air turbine (propeller), 5-electricity generator, 6-support cable spool, 7-wind, 8-spool motor, 9-film (fabric) cable. H - deployed elevation of FAW.
times, the film is simpler, building is easier.
- -- The wind wall is dependent on wind. If wind is weak, the wall drifts down to ground. That may happen some times in the year. If wind increases, the wall automatically rises to altitude. The control mechanisms are more complex and the Wind Wall requires more service personnel per unit of generated water and power. On the other hand, in many locations, effective rainfall of an AB-Mountain might be largely seasonal; the decision must be made site by site.
- -- No additional effect from closed-loop cycle `within' the Wall.
As wind flows over and around a fully exposed, nearly completely sealed inflated wall, the weather affecting the external film (fabric) on the windward side must endure positive air pressures as the wind stagnates. Simultaneously, low air pressure eddies will be present on the leeward side of the wall. In other words, air pressure gradients caused by air density differences on different parts of the wall's envelope is characterized as the "buoyancy effect". The buoyancy effect will be greatest during the coldest weather when the Wall is heated and the temperature difference between its interior and exterior are greatest. In extremely cold climates such as the Arctic and Antarctic Regions the buoyancy effect tends to dominate wall pressurization.
- -- Amount of water in atmosphere. Amount of water in atmosphere depends upon temperature and humidity. For relative humidity 100%, the maximum partial pressure of water vapor is shown in Table 1.
- --
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Table 2. Standard atmosphere. ?o = 1.225 kg/m3
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(2)
Fig. 9. Amount of water in 1 m3 of air versus air temperature and relative humidity (rh). H = 0 km, t1 = 0 oC. 36 kb.
Fig.10. Air temperature versus the altitude for different temperatures.
, (3)
Fig.11. Altitude where temperature equals 0oC via air temperature at sea level.
Fig. 12. Relative wind speed versus altitude for Vo = 6 m/s, Ho = 10 m/s.
, (4)
Fig. 13. Amount of water flow may be extracted by 1 m of the AB-Wall (rain and wall) via wall height for different air temperature To at Ho = 10 m , air speed Vo = 6 m/s, relative air humidity rh = 0.3 at sea level. Collector efficiency kc = 1 , coefficient increasing of air speed with altitude ? = 0.15 ; Hm = 5 km. The part of this water is realized as rain before Wind Wall and part is precipitations on wall surface (kc < 1).
Please notice: If relative humidity is rh = 0,3, the Wall begins to produce water over altitude 3 km. Every 100 - 300m ridge length of a 5-km altitude artificial Wall can produce a good sized river.
Fig. 14. Amount of water flow may be extracted by 1 m of the AB-Wall via wall height for different air temperature To at Ho = 10 m , air speed Vo = 6 m/s, relative air humidity rh = 0.15 at sea level. Collector efficiency kc = 1 , coefficient increasing of air speed with altitude ? = 0.15 ; Hm = 6 km.
, (5)
Fig. 15. Water energy (MW) from 1 m of AB-Wall via wall height and air temperature To , air speed Vo = 6 m/s, relative air humidity rh = 0.3 at sea level H = 10 m. Collector efficiency kc = 1 , product of efficiency coefficients (tubes, hydro-turbine, electric generator) is ? = 0.8, coefficient increasing of air speed with altitude ? = 0.15. The real energy may be lees in two times because a part of water drop out as rain before Wall (kc = 0.5).
, (6)
Fig.16 . Maximal additional heating of atmosphere after Wall via temperature before Wall and relative humidity. Condenser coefficient equals 1.
(7)
, (8)
, (9)
The cooling energy in some times more then P [Eq. (4)]. But that is difficult to realize in practice (except for cooling needs) because the difference of temperatures between water and air is small (- 20 C). The cold water for cooling of building may be delivered by current water (heat transfer) systems. An on-land version of OTEC technology using solar hot water heaters and the cold water to maximize the temperature differences might tap these energy streams, but why? The hydroelectricity is far cheaper and less capital intensive. One use of such masses of cold water might be to lower the temperature of bodies of water to better hold oxygen for productive aquaculture.
Fig. 17. Windmill power [kW/m] via Wall height for air speed Vo = 6 m/s at sea level H0 = 10 m, product of efficiency coefficients (windmill, electric generator) is ? = 0.5, coefficient increasing of air speed with altitude ? = 0.2 , diameter of wind turbine D = 20 m.
, (10)
Fig. 18. Wind dynamic pressure versus wind speed and air density ?. The ro = 0.6 is for H - 6 km.
, (11)
= 100 N/m2, R = 5000 m and ? = 100 kg/mm2 =109 N/m2, ? = 1500 kg/m3 the request film thickness is 0.5 mm, mass M =0.75 kg/m2.
Fig. 19. Thickness of AB-Wall cover (without the support cables) via over pressure at H = 0 for different safety stress. Radius of AB-Wall is R = 5 km.
, (12)
Table 3. Estimation of energy expenses for different methods of freshwater extraction
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(13)
Fig. 20. Wind speed distribution for different average wind speed (4, 5, 8 m/s).
Fig. 21. Probability of wind at sea level for different average wind speed.
(14)
, (14a)
, (15)
. (16)
Table 4. Material properties
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Projects
- -- AB-Wall ridge of height 5 km and length 100 km
The actual profile of the available water may be distributed around the year, depending on when prevailing winds cause a local `rainy season'
DISCUSSION
5. CONCLUSION
Acknowledgement
REFERENCES
(The reader may find some of these articles at the author's web page: http://Bolonkin.narod.ru/p65.htm, http://arxiv.org , search "Bolonkin", in the book "Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight", Elsevier, London, 2006, 488 pgs. and in books "New Concepts, Ideas, Innovations in Aerospace, Technology and Human Science", NOVA, 2008, 502 pgs., "Macro Projects: Environment and Technology", NOVA, 2009, 536 pgs.)
[online] http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/0801/0801.4820.pdf .
[online] http://arxiv.org/ftp/physics/papers/0701/0701097.pdf
[online] http://arxiv.org/ftp/physics/papers/0701/0701059.pdf
7. Bolonkin, A.A. and R.B. Cathcart, The Java-Sumatra Aerial Mega-Tramway, 2006. http://arxiv.org.
Interplanetary Society Vol. 56, pp. 87 - 97, 2003.
2007-6262 by AIAA Conference "Space-2007", 18-20 September 2007, Long Beach. CA, USA.
http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/0707/0707.3990.pdf .
- -- Naschekin, V.V., Technical thermodynamic and heat transmission. Public House for High Universities, Moscow. 1969 (in Russian).
- -- Gleick, Peter; et al. (1996). in Stephen H. Schneider: Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather. Oxford University Press.
- -- Encyclopedia of Desalination and water and Water Resources. Springer.
- -- Encyclopedia of Earth - Surface water management. Springer.
- -- Galasso F.S., Advanced Fibers and Composite, Gordon and Branch Scientific Publisher, 1989.
- -- Carbon and High Performance Fibers Directory and Data Book, London-New. York: Chapmen& Hall, 1995, 6th ed., 385 p.
- -- Concise Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Engineering, Ed. J.I. Kroschwitz, N. Y., Wiley, 1990, 1341 p.
- -- Dresselhaus, M.S., Carbon Nanotubes, Springer, 2000.
- -- Wikipedia. http://wikipedia.org . Some background material in this article is gathered from Wikipedia under the Creative Commons license.
Chapter 8B
The natural Purpose of Mankind is to become God
Introduction.
In a series of previous articles (See: publication list following essay), I examined some questions of human immortality and a totally electronic civilization. In those article, it was also briefly mentioned the law of increase of complexity self-copying systems and the purpose of existence of mankind. In this brief article that theme is presented in more detail which are developed and improved.
1. The Law of purpose. Life's purpose.
The real purpose of an aggregation of living matter, for a long time, has fascinated philosophers. These purposes are obvious to the overwhelming majority of people and they are guided constantly in a daily life. It is the sensitive struggle for well-being (riches) by the individual and the family, for females or males, for sexual or other pleasures, for glory, authority etc. We shall name these aims as the local or individual purposes. Only insignificant numbers of
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people pursue more overall aims of the particular group or specific community. But they also can be reduced to the personal purposes meaning that they want popularity, glory or authority. Charles Robert Darwin [1809-82] had determined these purposes the generalized term " struggle for existence ", understanding under it first of all struggle for existence of the certain kind of alive creatures in struggle against other kinds of life forms. Any human has personal, local, close, regional and spatial and temporal purposes which can vary depending on Earth's geophysical and civilization's developmental period and immediate circumstances. For example, if he is hungry now, his nearest purpose will be food. If he is fed, the nearest purpose can become reception of pleasure, and more distant purpose - riches, glory or authority. In this short article, we shall examine only the global purposes of all intelligent life or more overall aims of all reasonable, switching in concept of Reason not only biological reason, but artificial, electronic and self-developing. People easily understand the individual, personal, local purposes; it is worse the group purposes, even worse than the purpose of a unique human society and the geopolitical state. But people seldom think of the purposes of existence of mankind in the course of daily their daily activities, and furthermore all life. If they can choose the primary (individual) purposes, the secondary aims (of society) somehow to influence, the tertiary purposes (mankind and all life in Earth's biosphere), from them not depend. About them they in general nothing know or have foggy representation.  Robot and austronabt |
Told, it is possible to formulate as the first part of the following law:
2. What is alive and what there is a reason (intellect).
We shall understand essences as independent reasonable essences capable to build theoretical models of an environment, to predict its long-term behavior and to transform it in the interests of those concerned. These three criteria from biological essences of the Earth are answered only by the person. Artificial intellect of that kind is what exists nowadays, can be trained to first two criteria, but while a little who is engaged in questions (and its supply) of engineering, of self-manufacture, dooming him/her on a role of servant and the slave to the biological person.
3. Biological Intellect as the first step to the Purpose.
In article [1] the Law of increase of complexity self-copying systems was formulated. All history alive in the Earth today confirms existence of this law. After the great invention of Nature - self-duplication, life which was rather quickly improved has appeared, cutting all that was not adapted to external conditions (the generalized law of Darwin's "struggle for existence" concept). Microbes, then plants, then animals appeared. After this, Nature made the next great invention - humanity (intellect). In the beginning have appeared, the people actively alter a nature under itself, for the needs was generated. Unfortunately, to the person has got also a heavy heritage (necessary in the unreasonable world) - struggle for the personal, the best existence - monstrous the set of the individual purposes, emotions and passions, that sharply brakes the unique society's progress.
In previous articles, it is shown conclusively what must be overcome. This contradiction is possibly the only transition to following to a higher level of Reason (Intellect) - an electronic society which will be relieved of many defects of a human society (money-making, individual reaches, sexual instincts, aspiration to authority, racial and religious conflicts, time emotions). The society which will not require food, dwelling, air, the non-polluting environment, health services, will not spend decades for cultivation and training of posterity and spend on all this huge (99.9 %) effort and means. An electronic Society can live on the majority of planets without air, waters and energy from suns.
4. What is God?
In consciousness of the majority of people the God associated with a certain reasonable omnipotent (all-powerful) being which can affect everyone. But whether the being which can all what is possible? The elementary question: "Can God create a stone which he cannot lift?" - at once nonpluses (to be nonplused) theologians of all organized religions. If he cannot lift it, is he not an omnipotent being? If create such stone he cannot, there is a similar question. I.e., the exertive force of God is relative. He seems to us all-powerful only in the decision of those problems (tasks), which to us not under force. And that, probably, are not all.
The second moment above which nobody reflects, but is meant automatically in sub-consciousness everyone: above the God there is no heads to which he submits. Otherwise, that it for God and the omnipotent Creator above which is stronger essence to which he is compelled to submit and carry out another's will. Below the God has subordinates - for example, the angels having certain force, but all of them more poorly and carry out will of the God.
The Nature is for expediency taken here represents itself as the English Parliament, the American Congress or Russian Duma. It establishes physical Laws which are identical to all and can not be broken even by the God acting as the President of given period and region, and it is possible also all known Universe.
Local Gods are possible (probable) while there are no contacts and it does not know about other Gods in other parts of the Universe. But, as soon as facts about them become known, the main thing becomes stronger God (the God of region with higher scientific and technical power). In this sense, the God is always one, and all others (at the best) can be only angels.
5. God as the purpose given to mankind by Nature
But the person (i.e. the mankind) is the God and in this Solar System. It is already precisely established that on any other of the planets of this Solar System there are no reasonable essences which could compete to the person on intellectual development. Moreover, most likely there are not even microbes. And about reasonable essences in our Milky Way Galaxy or the Universe, we do not know also they of us in anything do not limit.
But some people can object, that many people are unfortunate, have no itself the most necessary. But why you think, that the God or his angels all are happy? You think so because they can solve your problems at one stroke. But they have problems in which they are engaged also which make their happy or unfortunate.
The Nature has made the person (mankind) the strongest biological essence on the Earth and in this Solar System, i.e. the local God. And if he wants, that he was not enthralled by other Gods (as we have enthralled all alive on the Earth), he has a unique way - to become the God of our Milky Way Galaxy, and later to be the God of the Universe. This Global and unique Purpose of Humanity is given by Nature. And the sooner humanity realizes this aim, and will aspire to it, then the better humanity's chance to avoid slavery by higher reasons (Aliens?) and to not appear in a category of the lowest reasonable essences.
6. An Electronic Civilization as the second step of Reason (humanity).
-B, & Prof Noel Sharkey
7. Electronic immortality as a way of transition to an Electronic Civilization.
8. What can we await from other, alien civilizations?
9. Great Space Race.
Mankind has achieved a power of the local God in this Solar System. His main task and the purpose imposed to him by the Nature to begin the God in our Galaxy, and then in all universe. This is our greatest happiness, that the space newcomers have not arrived (flied) to us. That is a mark of that we are the most advanced, knowing and technically advanced even in our Milky Way Galaxy. This race is infinite because Knowledge is unlimited. It does not mean that mankind will keep the biological environment (Earth-biosphere). First, mankind is transformed to an electronic society, then in process of growth of the knowledge and technologies - in (maybe) proton, quantum or quark society and so on indefinitely. Each step will be jerk forward on the basis of new knowledge and technologies and each step will accelerate scientific - technological progress in hundreds and thousand times. Most likely all advanced community will represent the certain distributed (allocated) collective Reason (as will be based on one general (common) base of knowledge. It is possible, that this Reason (Supreme Mind) will reach (achieve) such power that can create the new universe. And even to operate Laws of the Universe.
Hardly will it be the God in present human understanding who is interested in each person separately and sponsors him. We, being Gods in a Solar System, are not interested in life of each ant and even a separate ant hill. We solve the global (from the point of view of an ant) problems: To cut down woods, to plough up the ground, to plant gardens, to irrigate desert, - not beginning from existence on this ground of numerous ant hills. Believing ants all events will be think as act of nature or the divine punishment.
10. One alternative - or the God, or either slavery and destruction.
But the elementary analysis of a history of life and scientific and technical progress on the Earth shows, that humanity has only one alternative: or to be the God of the universe, or come under authority of stronger (in sense of Alien Knowledge) the God who has been given birth on other planet, other civilization.
11. The current purpose and the main ways of scientific and technical progress.
12. Conclusion and Summary.
Precise comprehension of a role of mankind in the Nature, - is extremely important for the natural purpose of the purpose of its existence for a correct choice of the general direction of movement of a society. The god as an able essence is not that other as higher Reason (Supreme Mind). He will be created by scientific and technical progress. The mankind already became the God (the Supreme Mind, Reason) in our Solar System and the Nature has given mankind an opportunity to participate in Great Space Race of Reasons to become the God of our Milky Way Galaxy, and then it is possible also the God of the Universe in the form of Great Reason.
Personhood. Three Prerequisites or Laws of
E-Beings.
1. What is an intelligent Person?
Intelligence Personhood is a term describing a property of the mind. Personhood includes abilities, such as the capacities for understanding, reasoning, learning, learning, abstract thought from past experiences, planning, communication, and problem solving.
Man has a biological brain which provides this function for him. The AI and E-being would have corresponding logical devices (computer, chips) as the functional equivalent. Current computer research today is outlining many functions of biological intelligence. It is possible that actual functionality shall be achieved in these areas: Artificial brain as learning agent, learning from past experience, planning, understanding, communication, and solving of problems are key areas of pursuit. An intelligent agent or AI is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success. Achievements in artificial intelligence include constrained and well-defined problems such as games, crossword-solving and optical character recognition. Among the traits that researchers hope machines will exhibit are reasoning, perception, and the ability to move and manipulate objects. Current computers are also widely used as devices for computation of very complex problems as nuclear explosive simulation and global Earth simulations involving weather and other condition states.
2. Artificial Intelligence as a person. Three Prerequisites or Laws of Men, AI and E-beings.
Only considering what biology makes possible (as opposed to what culture, ethics or teaching may limit) most men act as if these three prerequisites are part of their baseline programming.
2. The E-being must defend himself and his existence by any methods.
He must increase his stability against large scale unfavorable events by producing large numbers of copies of himself. These (assuming no conflict with his 'children' will be an aid in normal times, disaster relief in bad times).
3. The E-being must have a main purpose: increasing his power for purposes of increased capabilities in the real world, with (at least in the far vision), became the strongest in the World by producing new knowledge and technologies. This is like market share for corporations or rank for nations.
3. Third Law for Men, AI and E-beings.
These laws are quite similar to the motivations of men. But we know from daily life that men-- who theoretically have much more in common than in conflict-- can in fact have conflicts. We note that these three prerequisites conflict with the proposed Three Laws of Robotics by Issac Asimov. But our aims are opposed: Asimov wants to create electronic slaves (robots); I want to create human immortality and a new powerful electronic civilization (bringing vast new powers to both Humanity and the Universe). After transformation into an E-being (as a final defense against medical crisis, for example) you will not agree to be the slave of a man, as a man does not want to be a slave of a monkey. If people seeking immortality will be transferred into E-being bodies, they will be requesting equal rights with biological people.
Many people may fear the results of the above list of machine motivations. But without something similar the E-beings will be only the slaves of people and but of little use in the service of science and technological progress.
4. Biological Human Civilization. Electronic Civilization.
In developing Human Civilization the Third Law becomes a big brake to human progress. The aims of many people are opposed; the natural and human resources are limited. Conflict begins. Results are murders, wars, hostility, antagonism, etc. The numbers of people killed in wars, religious and national conflicts are more than in the natural catastrophes. The agriculture and technical progress were large in last century but still half of the people in the World are underfed. Most of the (>99%) human resources are spent for support of human existence--including investments for the future-- mostly in squalor, sometimes luxuriously--but if we separate further development of known fields and inventions with the money spent to develop the new through research and development we shall see that the expenditure on getting NEW knowledge are very small relative to the total GDP. Governments and corporations began to finance the science and new technologies on a large scale only in the last century. As the result the science and technical progress in last century are more than in during the millions years before.
The electronic civilization does not have these lacks, defects, and weaknesses. The E-beings will not need food, housing, good and a clean environment. They can live in now neglected cold regions, ocean, space (the Cosmos). They will need only minerals and places for scientific installations and automated plants for producing themselves. Their main job will be getting, developing the new knowledge, studying of the Universe and colonization of the Universe. They can be stopped only by a higher (stronger) civilization.
For a certain time the biological and electronic civilizations will exist together and will need each other. The biological civilization will need solutions for their problems such as food, dwelling, environment, etc.; the electronic civilization will need the initial production of chips, mechanical bodies of E-beings and the human scientists to aid in their further development. In that crucial interval it is very important to develop the rules of the relationship between human and E-being (and AI), to develop relationships inside the electronic society, the relationship of the electronic society to animals and plants (flora and fauna). Later this relationship will be limited by the creation of reservations and conservation areas for people, animals and plants.
The people must understand that they cannot compete with E-beings. The main purpose of the Universe requires a higher civilization. And people should not oppose the birth of a higher electronic civilization. They must transfer to E-being bodies. Their award will be immortality.
Emotion are important only for people. They allow people to see what is reaction of other persons in his speech, explanation, actions. The people accept the AI, E-being, robots as man only in case when they will see the conventional face reaction and the emotional movement of body. For example: joy, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, etc.
The Russian scientists Oleg G. Pensky is developing a theory of emotions. The interested reader finds it in the monograph "Mathematical Models of Emotional Robots", Perm, 2010, 193 ps (in English and Russian) (http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1011/1011.1841.pdf ), and in book "Fundamentals of Mathematical Theory of Emotional Robots ", (http://www.scribd.com/doc/40640088/).
People will more easily accept the artificial robot (E-being) as an intellectual creature if one has a human form (body). For relatives of the (once-human) E-being it is very important for the E-being to have a form (face, body) of a man which they remember when he was alive.
The humanoid E-beings can easily integrate into biological society. This will facilitate the rapid transition of biological people (especially old and sick) into the E-being bodies. One can imagine upgrading-- selecting an idealized more handsome and fit-looking version of one's previous self-- over the long run, however it is possible that E-beings may grow more comfortable with diverse forms as an envelope for their existence .
Part C
Problems of Science Research and Technical Progress
Abstract
- -- The first stage is discovery of new concepts or idea. That stage includes an appearance of new idea and INITIAL RESEARCH of its possibilities and main conditions that are requisite for its practicability, initial proof of reality. A person can be only author of a new concept or idea if he/she made initial research and showed that this idea may become a future technical reality. A person who ONLY gave the idea (point 0 in Figure 1) is NOT its author because it is easy to produce a lot of ideas that are beneath or beyond realization. For example, the fantast Jules Verne (1828-1905) penned his famous book about the first manned flight to the Moon using a truly huge metal cannon cast in situ in the ground of Florida, USA. Is he the author of the idea for manned flight to Moon employing a big gun? No. Even primitive research shows that a human cannot tolerate the acceleration that is caused by this method, where the vehicle is a cannonball.
- -- The second stage started after publication or public announcement of the primary idea during a scientific conference. Other researchers join the investigation of the new idea and make more detailed researches. Most of this new idea research is theoretical, and only a small part may be experimental.
- -- The third stage includes the production of appropriate experimental examples, an early form of materialization.
- -- The fourth stage is actual production of marketable versions of the idea.
We show the development of one innovation (curve 1 in Figure 1). However, any concept exhausts itself and its inherent efficiency possibilities over time. The new concept (idea) appears which promises even more efficiency (curve 2 in Figure 1). Conventionally, in initial time a new concept has less efficiency than a highly over-developed old idea, but as refinements occur in the future, the innovation efficiency becomes significantly more than the old idea.
- -- The author in special paragraph or article conclusion must enumerate: What is new (unknown before!) he/she offered and/or made in work offered? That may be a new concept, an idea, multiple innovations, new mathematical models (equations), new non-conventional result of computation, new design of old or well-known macro and micro object (show its advantages), et cetera.
- -- The author must DETAIL all his computation (equations and their receiving!) and initial data, which ALLOW to repeat (check up) his new equation and computation. If he offered new project, he must estimate its cost. If offered idea, research and innovation are close to old or known idea or research, the author must enumerate all difference of his idea, innovations and results from earlier works (What NEW he/she offers/made in his/her work). If nothing on the list is actually new, that means the presented work is just idle talk. If author does not give the proof of the new equations, full data for computation, he deprives other scientists the means to check his equations and computations and the value of these equations and computations are virtually zero. That means the author(s) is afraid to let his/her work to endure a thorough examination. Not only should there be the possibility of peer review of the computations, but its feasibility should be assessed by the author by assessing its cost. Work offered which could include new macro-projects must contain the estimation of their cost. Without this estimation, the value of scientific work is very low.
- -- If this work is funded by Government (taxpayers), the sum of money received by any author (or a research organization) must be made public!
Note, sometimes the author(s) announce: this work was supported by (Government or funded by Government) organization. But if they did not show the exact monetary sum of "support", that means the reader can understand this work was done without spending any taxpayer money.
- -- Given ONLY for new concepts and ideas developed by author and published or presented in sufficient qualifying detail at a scientific conference or on the Internet (stage 1 in Figure 1).
- -- The awards must be given ONLY to qualified individuals.
- -- The competition must be OPEN, advertised widely in public notices. ALL contenders and their work and proposals announced BEFORE any awards.
- --
The awarding Committee must be from independent well-known scientists in given field.
- -- Independent selection Committee having widely-known E-mail address.
- -- Open competition with publication of all nominated scientific works on Internet, including assessments made by scientists before any funding awards.
- --
Awarding ONLY actually achieved, not speculation about, scientific works not supported from other sources.
. http://www.nasa.gov/offices/oct/early_stage_innovation/niac/2011_phase1_selections.html .
Recommendation:
6. Fellowship and NRC (National Research Council)
- -- Government must organize or support the internet libraries which openly publish the scientific researches in given field very much the way www.arXiv.org of Cornel University publishes physics research. But these libraries must have a known Science Board which can stop the arbitrariness of moderator.
- -- The USA must have minimum two rival journals in every scientific field. (These may be Internet journals). Every journal must have an Appeal Commission where author can complain if he/she does not agree with editor's clearly stated reasons for article rejection.
- -- Every National Conference must have a small fund for supporting the individuals presenting revolutionary research and give them possibility to address a meeting.
- -- The US Government and the NASA must support with appropriate funding the points 1-3 above (free scientific internet library, free scientific journal and virtual scientific conferences), the AIAA (and all big old Scientific Societies), the internet scientific publishing houses.
- -- The AIAA (and all big old Scientific Societies) must freely publish on the Internet all manuscripts presented in AIAA Scientific Conferences. (Paper copies, of course, are its business and may be small charged for as the publishers please).
- -- The government must create the free Internet Libraries of the technical, mathematic, physic textbooks.
- -- The PTO (or special library) must publish all PTO application in Internet, but PTO must request the PTO fee for examination (and others) AFTER the inventor will ask the examination! That may be in during the patent rights (20 years).
- -- The Government must give permits to 3-5 competitive companies for giving patents. These companies compete with the cheapest patenting (who wishes to receive patent).
- -- Now, the PTO has rates tailored to big Companies and to small Business. It must be a special rate for individuals and the FULL payment (application, patenting, and maintenance) must be not more $100 for all these stages. The maintenance fee is usually what kills the ability of an individual to finance his own patents; sometimes corporations count on that and wait him out.
- -- There must be a new category of "important patents for Defense of the USA". If a Special Committee recognized a patent application as necessary (important) for Department of Defense or the US national security, the applicant should have a right to a free patent (he receives only a author certificate, the Government gets all patent rights), all American organizations or companies can use this patent but they must pay its author 1% and the PTO 1% from the gross-cost of the products incorporating this patent.
- -- All income received by PTO must be used for support of individual inventors programs, not as an income center for the bureaucracy itself.
- -- Government must organize or support the internet libraries which openly publish the scientific researches in given field. These libraries must have a known Science Board to prevent arbitrariness of a moderator.
- -- Government must install 3-5 annual Government Prizes (about $100K) in every important field of science (space, aviation, computer, physics, biology, energy, environment, etc.) for important THEORETICAL achievements MADE by individuals. Practical results will flow from these if such are forthcoming from enthusiasts; but the way forward must be pointed out. It takes genius to do it, and genius needs its physical as well as spiritual rewards!
- -- The unwise and wasteful practice of advance funding of primary theoretical researches must be stopped (as 1st study NIAC of NASA) and changed to OPEN competitions of the READY researches in any given field and in given topics. Moreover, the main method funding of research must not be funding through Universities but it must be the work of University scientists done during 1-3 years `sabbatical' as Fellow researchers in big Government laboratories. The NRC must be closed and Government laboratory straight invite the needed scientists.
- -- Innovation must be rewarded. Any company using new methods of computation must pay small ($1000 or less) royalties to the authors for every licensing use. PTO must accept the application about new methods of technical computations. Must be also the additional form free registration inventions without PTO (PTO examination and PTO fee).
- -- The PTO (or special library) must publish all PTO application in Internet, but must request the PTO fee for examination (and others) AFTER the inventor will ask the examination! That may be in during the patent rights (20 years).
- -- The Government must support adequate open scientific journals (publication without editing), publishing houses, free Internet scientific libraries; individual scientists should be aided to presented important researches to scientific national conferences. Government must also make special small rates apply (<$100) to individual inventors, free patenting of important for DOD and National defense inventions and to use all PTO profit for support of individual inventor programs important for DOD and the USA.
- -- NASA, DARPA, Government laboratories must engage a head and main specialists of every project in OPEN competitions, preferably the authors of project (proposal) and scientists who made the main contributions in the project idea or concepts. NASA must be divided into at least two independent rival organizations. NIAC was feeder for friends: One spent about $150-$200 millions (for 8 years) with zero results. The new NIAC repeats its mistake. NIAC of NASA must stops to award the 1st study proposals ($100K) promised to make the research. Researcher must present the ready, made research, NASA must publish in Internet the presented proposals and only after 2 months of public discussion, to award the best of them. The World Bank follows this procedure on all mega-projects and this formula should be adopted by those who fund scientific and technological innovation. This procedure must be streamlined so that funding is immediate before the "new" idea becomes an old one.
- -- GOTO: http://NASA-NIAC.narod.ru.
- -- GOTO: http://auditing-science.narod.ru or http://www.geocities.com/auditing.science.
- -- Bolonkin A.A., Cathcart R.B., Macro-Projects. Environment and Technology, NOVA, 2008, 537 pgs.
- -- Bolonkin A.A., "New Technologies and Revolutionary Projects", Scribd, 2008, 324 pgs, http://www.scribd.com/doc/32744477 , http://www.archive.org/details/NewTechnologiesAndRevolutionaryProjects .
- --
Bolonkin A.A., LIFE. SCIENCE. FUTURE (Biography notes, researches and innovations). Scribd, 2010, 208 pgs. 16 Mb. http://www.scribd.com/doc/48229884,
http://www.archive.org/details/Life.Science.Future.biographyNotesResearchesAndInnovations
Appendix
Summary
Here there are values useful for calculations and estimations of macro-projects.
1. System of Mechanical and Electrical Units
The following table contains the delivered metric mechanical and the electromagnetic SI units that have been introduced in this text, expressed in terms of the fundamental units meter, kilogram, second, and ampere. From these expressions the dimensions of the physical quantities involved can be readily determined.
Length.............. 1 meter = 1 m
Mass.................1 kilogram = 1 kg
Time.................1 second = 1 s
Electric current.... 1 ampere = 1 A
Force.........1 newton = 1 N = 1 kg"m/s2
Pressure.....1 N/m2 = 1 kg/m.s2
Energy.......1 joule = 1 J =1 N/m = 1 kg.m2/s2
Power........1 watt = 1 W =1 J/s =1 kg.m2/s3
Rotational inertia................1 kilogram.meter2 = 1 kg.m2
Torque.............................1 meter.newton = 1 kg.m2/s2
Electric charge....................1 coulomb = 1 C = 1 A.s
Electric intensity..................1 N/C = 1 V/m = 1 kg.m/s3.A
Electric potential..................1 volt = 1 V = 1 J/C = 1 kg.m2/s3.A
Electric resistance.................1 ohm =1 ? =1 V/A = 1 kg.m2/s3.A2
Capacitance........................1 farad = 1 F =1 C/V = 1 C2/J = 1 s4.A2/kg.m2
Inductance..........................1 henry = 1 H =1 J/A2 = 1 ?.s = 1 kg.m2/s2.A2
Magnetic flux......................1 webwer = 1 Wb = 1 J/A = 1 V.s = 1 kg.m2/s2.A
Magnetic intensity................1 tesla = 1 Wb/m2 =1 V.s/m2 =1 kg/s2.A=N/mA
Reluctance.........................1 ampera-turn/weber = 1 A/Wb =1 s2.A2/kg.m2
Magnetizing force.................1 ampere-turn/meter = 1 A/m
Kelvin is fundamental unit of temperature
Candela is fundamental power-like unit of photometry
Fundamental Physical Constants
Speed of light in vacuum c = 299 792 459 ~ 3в108 m/s
Magnetic constant (permeability) ?o = 4?в10-7 N/A2
Electric constant 1/?oc2 ?o = 8.854 187 817...в10-12 F/m
Plank constant h = 6.626 068 76...в10-34 J s
h/2? = 1.054 571 596...в10-34 J s
Standard gravitational acceleration 9.806 65 m/s2
Standard atmosphere (atm) 101 325 N/m2
Thermochemical kilocalorie 4184 J
Speed of light in vacuum (c) 2.997 935в108 m/s
Electronic charge (e) 1.60210в10-19 C
Avogadro constant (NA) 6.0225в1026/kmol
Faraday constant (F) 9.6487в107 C/kmol
Universal gas constant (R) 8314 J/kmol
Gravitational constant (G) 6.67в10-11 N.m2/kg2
Boltzmann constant (k) 1.3806в10-23 J/K
Stefan-Boltzmann Constant (?) 5.670в10-8 W/K4.m2
Rest energy of one atomic mass unit 931.48 MeV
Electron-volt (eV) 1.60218в10-19 J
Rest masses of particles
(u) (kg) (MeV)
Electron 5.485 97в10-4 9.1091в10-31 0.511 006
Proton 1.002 2766 1.672 52в10-27 938.26
?-particles 4.001 553 6.6441в10-27 3727.3
Detonation energy of 1 kiloton of high explosive is 1012 cal. 1 cal = 4.19 J.
Standard periodic table
|
Group ? |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
10 |
11 |
12 |
13 |
14 |
15 |
16 |
17 |
18 |
|
? Period |
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